门槛上的思想家
René Descartes(1596-1650)
Stand at threshold——
Between two worlds:
Medieval/Renaissance behind——
Modern ahead
他是:
- Mathematician(创立解析几何)
- Scientist(光学、生理学)
- Philosopher(现代哲学之父)
但most importantly:
He change how we think about thinking itself
从他开始——
Philosophy变成:
Individual mind面对world——
Seeking certainty through reason alone
这是modern subjectivity的birth
从怀疑到确定
Night of dreams
November 10, 1619——
Bavaria(随军中)——
23岁的Descartes有三个dreams
他解释为divine calling:
统一all sciences through mathematics和reason
这shape他的一生mission
《方法论》(Discourse on Method,1637)
自传性philosophical work
描述他的intellectual journey
Systematic doubt
Descartes决定:
找absolutely certain foundation for knowledge
方法:
怀疑一切可以怀疑的
Methodological skepticism(不是真skepticism)——
怀疑=tool to find certainty
什么可以怀疑?
1. Senses
Senses sometimes deceive——
Stick looks bent in water——
Tower looks round from distance但square close
如果sometimes deceive——
Maybe always deceive?
External world可能不如appears
2. Dreaming
如何知道you不是dreaming now?
在dream中,一切seems real
但wake后realize was illusion
Maybe this"waking life"也是dream?
No certain test
3. Evil demon(恶魔假设)
More radical:
Suppose有powerful evil demon——
Deceiving me about everything
Making me think2+3=5——
When actually不是
Making me think I have body——
When I don’t
这是total skepticism
一切可能是illusion
The unshakeable point
但:
即使evil demon deceive me about everything——
有一件事he can’t deceive:
我exist!
Why?
To be deceived,我必须exist
To think(even错误thoughts),我必须exist
To doubt,我必须exist
Famous conclusion:
“Cogito, ergo sum”
“I think, therefore I am”
(拉丁语)
Or in原文(French):
“Je pense, donc je suis”
这是absolutely certain
不可怀疑
Archimedes point:
“Give me place to stand,我可以移动world”
Descartes:
“Cogito”=他的standing point
From这,rebuild all knowledge
Thinking substance
从cogito,Descartes推出:
我是什么?
我=thinking thing(res cogitans)
Substance whose essence=thought
不是body(还不确定body是否exist)——
因为can doubt body——
不能doubt thinking
所以:
Mind/soul=more certain than body
这reverse Aristotelian priority!
Aristotle:substance=物质things
Descartes:substance=首先是mental
Mind-body dualism
最终Descartes argue:
Mind和body=两种distinct substances:
Mind(res cogitans):
- Thinking
- Unextended
- Indivisible
- Free
Body(res extensa):
- Extended in space
- Divisible
- Subject to mechanical laws
- Not thinking
这是famous Cartesian dualism
Problem:
如何interaction?
Mind如何move body?
Body如何cause sensations in mind?
Descartes的answer:
Through pineal gland(brain部分)
不convincing!
这problem plague后来philosophy
上帝的证明
Descartes需要prove:
不只是我exist——
而且external world exist、上帝exist
From doubt to God
他发现自己有idea of perfect being(上帝)
问:这idea哪里来?
我=imperfect(因为我doubt)
Imperfect being不能create idea of perfect——
Effect不能greater than cause
所以:
Perfect being(上帝)必须exist——
Put this idea in me
这是cosmological argument某版本
Ontological argument
Also use Anselm’s argument(version):
上帝=most perfect being
Existence=perfection
所以上帝必须exist
(否则wouldn’t be most perfect)
这些arguments controversial——
Many criticize(Kant later demolish)
上帝的作用
Once prove上帝exist——
Descartes argue:
上帝不是deceiver(因为perfect)
所以:
Clear and distinct perceptions=true
(Because上帝guarantee)
This allow trust:
- Mathematics
- Physics
- External world(to extent perceived clearly)
但problem:
Circular reasoning?
Need上帝to guarantee clear perceptions——
But used clear perceptions to prove上帝!
“Cartesian circle”
Scholars debate是否真circular
机械论宇宙
Descartes的physics:
Everything=matter in motion
Physical world=pure extension(res extensa)
运动by mechanical laws
No final causes(teleology)
No substantial forms(Aristotelian)
Just:
Particles、motion、collision
这是mechanistic worldview
Influence modern science
Animals=machines
Provocative claim:
Animals没有souls、consciousness
只是complex machines(automata)
“Bête-machine”
他们似乎感觉pain——
但实际只是mechanical responses
Like clock that chimes
This horrify many!
But logical from dualism:
Thought=only in humans(有rational souls)
Animals=只是bodies
Humans=special
Humans=union of mind和body
Only humans有rational thought
Language=key evidence:
Animals can’t真正use language
(Mechanical sounds,不是thought)
方法论
《方法论》give rules for thinking:
Four rules
1. Accept只有clear and distinct as true
不rush to judgment
Avoid prejudice
2. Divide problems into smallest parts
Analysis
3. Order thoughts from simple to complex
Synthesis
4. Review completely
Make sure nothing omitted
这是systematic、mathematical approach
Apply to all knowledge
Descartes vs Predecessors
Radical breaks:
vs Aristotle
Reject substantial forms
Reject teleology(in physics)
Reject sensory knowledge priority
vs Scholastics
Reject authority
Start from自己的reason
不引用Aristotle、Church Fathers
vs Montaigne
Montaigne:skepticism→accept uncertainty
Descartes:skepticism→find certainty
Opposite responses to doubt
vs Bacon
Bacon:empirical、experimental
Descartes:rational、mathematical
Both modern但different paths
影响:开启现代
Rationalism tradition
Descartes start rationalism:
Knowledge through reason(不只是experience)
Innate ideas
Followers:
- Spinoza
- Leibniz
- Malebranche
Mind-body problem
Dualism create问题——
Philosophy of mind since:
如何solve或dissolve this?
Foundationalism
Seek certain foundations for knowledge
Build from基础
这是epistemological project for centuries
Subjectivity
Starting from"I think"——
Subject=center
Modern individualism某aspect
科学革命
Mechanistic physics
Mathematics as language of nature
虽然他的specific physics superseded——
His approach=influential
批评
1. Dualism问题
Mind-body interaction unexplained
Most philosophers now reject strong dualism
2. Circular reasoning
Cartesian circle(mentioned)
3. Cogito问题
“I think therefore I am”=真valid?
Assumes"I"exists——
But that’s what trying to prove!
Should be just"Thinking occurs"?
4. 忽视embodiment
Start from pure mind——
But humans are embodied
Experience always through body
Phenomenology later emphasize这
5. Mechanistic reduction
Reduce nature to matter in motion——
Lose qualities、values、meanings
“Disenchantment of nature”
遗产
“Father of Modern Philosophy”
Because:
1. New starting point
Individual rational subject
不是tradition、revelation、authority
2. 系统怀疑
Question everything methodologically
这成为philosophical habit
3. Mind-centered
Epistemology=primary
“How do I know?"=central question
这dominate philosophy直到20世纪
4. Reason的confidence
理性可以reach truth
System-building
Enlightenment inherit这
现代意义
1. 批判性思维
Descartes的method:
不accept without examination
Question、test、verify
这是scientific、philosophical attitude
2. First-person perspective
“I think”
Subjectivity的重要性
Consciousness studies today仍grapple这
3. Mind-body关系
仍是open question:
Consciousness如何relate to brain?
Dualism、materialism、其他?
Descartes把问题sharpen
4. Certainty的追求
Descartes want absolute certainty
可能too ambitious?
But impulse=understandable
在uncertain world——
Seek solid ground
实践
1. Method of doubt
有时useful:
Question assumptions
什么真确定?
什么只是习惯?
但also:
不需要doubt everything always
某些trust=necessary for living
2. Clear thinking
Descartes的rules:
- Clarity
- Analysis
- Order
- Completeness
这些仍good guidelines
3. Mind-body awareness
虽然dualism problematic——
Attend to both mental和physical
They’re connected——
但有certain autonomy
4. Reason的权利
Descartes:
Individual有right、duty to think for self
不只是accept authority
这是modern freedom
March 31st——
Month结束
从Medieval到Renaissance——
Now threshold of Modern
Descartes——
坐在stove-heated room——
(Famous detail from Meditations)
Thinking
Doubting
Seeking certainty
他发现:
“我思”
不可否认
From这tiny point——
这个"I think”——
He tries rebuild整个世界
是否成功?
Debatable
但attempt itself——
Revolutionary
他show:
Individual mind——
Armed with reason alone——
可以question everything
Challenge tradition
Seek truth independently
这是modern spirit
For better或worse
我们all now——
Descartes的heirs
Starting from"I think"
Building world——
From inside consciousness——
Outward
明天开始——
Modern philosophy proper
17-18世纪的伟大system-builders
Rationalists、Empiricists
All responding to——
这个"我思"
Descartes throw down
Cogito, ergo sum
我思,故我在
这三个拉丁words——
Change philosophy
Forever