门槛上的思想家

René Descartes(1596-1650)

Stand at threshold——

Between two worlds:

Medieval/Renaissance behind——

Modern ahead

他是:

  • Mathematician(创立解析几何)
  • Scientist(光学、生理学)
  • Philosopher(现代哲学之父)

但most importantly:

He change how we think about thinking itself

从他开始——

Philosophy变成:

Individual mind面对world——

Seeking certainty through reason alone

这是modern subjectivity的birth

从怀疑到确定

Night of dreams

November 10, 1619——

Bavaria(随军中)——

23岁的Descartes有三个dreams

他解释为divine calling:

统一all sciences through mathematics和reason

这shape他的一生mission

《方法论》(Discourse on Method,1637)

自传性philosophical work

描述他的intellectual journey

Systematic doubt

Descartes决定:

找absolutely certain foundation for knowledge

方法:

怀疑一切可以怀疑的

Methodological skepticism(不是真skepticism)——

怀疑=tool to find certainty

什么可以怀疑?

1. Senses

Senses sometimes deceive——

Stick looks bent in water——

Tower looks round from distance但square close

如果sometimes deceive——

Maybe always deceive?

External world可能不如appears

2. Dreaming

如何知道you不是dreaming now?

在dream中,一切seems real

但wake后realize was illusion

Maybe this"waking life"也是dream?

No certain test

3. Evil demon(恶魔假设)

More radical:

Suppose有powerful evil demon——

Deceiving me about everything

Making me think2+3=5——

When actually不是

Making me think I have body——

When I don’t

这是total skepticism

一切可能是illusion

The unshakeable point

但:

即使evil demon deceive me about everything——

有一件事he can’t deceive:

我exist!

Why?

To be deceived,我必须exist

To think(even错误thoughts),我必须exist

To doubt,我必须exist

Famous conclusion:

“Cogito, ergo sum”

“I think, therefore I am”

(拉丁语)

Or in原文(French):

“Je pense, donc je suis”

这是absolutely certain

不可怀疑

Archimedes point:

“Give me place to stand,我可以移动world”

Descartes:

“Cogito”=他的standing point

From这,rebuild all knowledge

Thinking substance

从cogito,Descartes推出:

我是什么?

我=thinking thing(res cogitans)

Substance whose essence=thought

不是body(还不确定body是否exist)——

因为can doubt body——

不能doubt thinking

所以:

Mind/soul=more certain than body

这reverse Aristotelian priority!

Aristotle:substance=物质things

Descartes:substance=首先是mental

Mind-body dualism

最终Descartes argue:

Mind和body=两种distinct substances:

Mind(res cogitans):

  • Thinking
  • Unextended
  • Indivisible
  • Free

Body(res extensa):

  • Extended in space
  • Divisible
  • Subject to mechanical laws
  • Not thinking

这是famous Cartesian dualism

Problem:

如何interaction?

Mind如何move body?

Body如何cause sensations in mind?

Descartes的answer:

Through pineal gland(brain部分)

不convincing!

这problem plague后来philosophy

上帝的证明

Descartes需要prove:

不只是我exist——

而且external world exist、上帝exist

From doubt to God

他发现自己有idea of perfect being(上帝)

问:这idea哪里来?

我=imperfect(因为我doubt)

Imperfect being不能create idea of perfect——

Effect不能greater than cause

所以:

Perfect being(上帝)必须exist——

Put this idea in me

这是cosmological argument某版本

Ontological argument

Also use Anselm’s argument(version):

上帝=most perfect being

Existence=perfection

所以上帝必须exist

(否则wouldn’t be most perfect)

这些arguments controversial——

Many criticize(Kant later demolish)

上帝的作用

Once prove上帝exist——

Descartes argue:

上帝不是deceiver(因为perfect)

所以:

Clear and distinct perceptions=true

(Because上帝guarantee)

This allow trust:

  • Mathematics
  • Physics
  • External world(to extent perceived clearly)

但problem:

Circular reasoning?

Need上帝to guarantee clear perceptions——

But used clear perceptions to prove上帝!

“Cartesian circle”

Scholars debate是否真circular

机械论宇宙

Descartes的physics:

Everything=matter in motion

Physical world=pure extension(res extensa)

运动by mechanical laws

No final causes(teleology)

No substantial forms(Aristotelian)

Just:

Particles、motion、collision

这是mechanistic worldview

Influence modern science

Animals=machines

Provocative claim:

Animals没有souls、consciousness

只是complex machines(automata)

“Bête-machine”

他们似乎感觉pain——

但实际只是mechanical responses

Like clock that chimes

This horrify many!

But logical from dualism:

Thought=only in humans(有rational souls)

Animals=只是bodies

Humans=special

Humans=union of mind和body

Only humans有rational thought

Language=key evidence:

Animals can’t真正use language

(Mechanical sounds,不是thought)

方法论

《方法论》give rules for thinking:

Four rules

1. Accept只有clear and distinct as true

不rush to judgment

Avoid prejudice

2. Divide problems into smallest parts

Analysis

3. Order thoughts from simple to complex

Synthesis

4. Review completely

Make sure nothing omitted

这是systematic、mathematical approach

Apply to all knowledge

Descartes vs Predecessors

Radical breaks:

vs Aristotle

Reject substantial forms

Reject teleology(in physics)

Reject sensory knowledge priority

vs Scholastics

Reject authority

Start from自己的reason

不引用Aristotle、Church Fathers

vs Montaigne

Montaigne:skepticism→accept uncertainty

Descartes:skepticism→find certainty

Opposite responses to doubt

vs Bacon

Bacon:empirical、experimental

Descartes:rational、mathematical

Both modern但different paths

影响:开启现代

Rationalism tradition

Descartes start rationalism:

Knowledge through reason(不只是experience)

Innate ideas

Followers:

  • Spinoza
  • Leibniz
  • Malebranche

Mind-body problem

Dualism create问题——

Philosophy of mind since:

如何solve或dissolve this?

Foundationalism

Seek certain foundations for knowledge

Build from基础

这是epistemological project for centuries

Subjectivity

Starting from"I think"——

Subject=center

Modern individualism某aspect

科学革命

Mechanistic physics

Mathematics as language of nature

虽然他的specific physics superseded——

His approach=influential

批评

1. Dualism问题

Mind-body interaction unexplained

Most philosophers now reject strong dualism

2. Circular reasoning

Cartesian circle(mentioned)

3. Cogito问题

“I think therefore I am”=真valid?

Assumes"I"exists——

But that’s what trying to prove!

Should be just"Thinking occurs"?

4. 忽视embodiment

Start from pure mind——

But humans are embodied

Experience always through body

Phenomenology later emphasize这

5. Mechanistic reduction

Reduce nature to matter in motion——

Lose qualities、values、meanings

“Disenchantment of nature”

遗产

“Father of Modern Philosophy”

Because:

1. New starting point

Individual rational subject

不是tradition、revelation、authority

2. 系统怀疑

Question everything methodologically

这成为philosophical habit

3. Mind-centered

Epistemology=primary

“How do I know?"=central question

这dominate philosophy直到20世纪

4. Reason的confidence

理性可以reach truth

System-building

Enlightenment inherit这

现代意义

1. 批判性思维

Descartes的method:

不accept without examination

Question、test、verify

这是scientific、philosophical attitude

2. First-person perspective

“I think”

Subjectivity的重要性

Consciousness studies today仍grapple这

3. Mind-body关系

仍是open question:

Consciousness如何relate to brain?

Dualism、materialism、其他?

Descartes把问题sharpen

4. Certainty的追求

Descartes want absolute certainty

可能too ambitious?

But impulse=understandable

在uncertain world——

Seek solid ground

实践

1. Method of doubt

有时useful:

Question assumptions

什么真确定?

什么只是习惯?

但also:

不需要doubt everything always

某些trust=necessary for living

2. Clear thinking

Descartes的rules:

  • Clarity
  • Analysis
  • Order
  • Completeness

这些仍good guidelines

3. Mind-body awareness

虽然dualism problematic——

Attend to both mental和physical

They’re connected——

但有certain autonomy

4. Reason的权利

Descartes:

Individual有right、duty to think for self

不只是accept authority

这是modern freedom

March 31st——

Month结束

从Medieval到Renaissance——

Now threshold of Modern

Descartes——

坐在stove-heated room——

(Famous detail from Meditations

Thinking

Doubting

Seeking certainty

他发现:

“我思”

不可否认

From这tiny point——

这个"I think”——

He tries rebuild整个世界

是否成功?

Debatable

但attempt itself——

Revolutionary

他show:

Individual mind——

Armed with reason alone——

可以question everything

Challenge tradition

Seek truth independently

这是modern spirit

For better或worse

我们all now——

Descartes的heirs

Starting from"I think"

Building world——

From inside consciousness——

Outward

明天开始——

Modern philosophy proper

17-18世纪的伟大system-builders

Rationalists、Empiricists

All responding to——

这个"我思"

Descartes throw down

Cogito, ergo sum

我思,故我在

这三个拉丁words——

Change philosophy

Forever