最被误解的思想家
Niccolò Machiavelli（1469-1527）
他的名字become adjective：
“Machiavellian”=
狡诈、不道德、权力操纵
但这fair吗？
读他actual works——
发现more complex思想家：
- 热爱Florence共和国
- 深刻观察human nature
- 政治现实主义的founder
- 道德困境的探索者
他的革命：
Separate politics from ethics（某种程度）——
不是因为amoral——
而是因为清醒
生平：从官员到流亡
Florence共和国
出生于Florence——
Medici家族第一次被驱逐后
Florence=republic（1494-1512）
Machiavelli serve as：
Second Chancellor——
负责外交、军事事务
14年官僚生涯（1498-1512）：
- Diplomatic missions（France、Germany、Rome）
- 观察各国politics first-hand
- 建立Florence民兵（对抗雇佣军）
这经历crucial for他的思想——
不是armchair theorist——
而是practical politician
失势
1512：
Medici家族return to Florence——
Republic overthrown
Machiavelli dismissed、流亡
1513：
被怀疑参与conspiracy against Medici——
Arrested、tortured（吊打）——
但释放
Retire to小farm outside Florence
写作时期
失业、流亡——
Turns to writing
Famous letter描述他的life（1513）：
白天：普通农民生活——
砍柴、打猎、在tavern与locals玩牌
晚上：
“I enter the ancient courts of ancient men, where, received by them with affection, I feed on that food which only is mine and which I was born for…I am not ashamed to speak with them and to ask them the reason for their actions; and they in their kindness answer me; and for four hours of time I do not feel boredom, I forget every trouble, I do not dread poverty, I am not frightened by death; entirely I give myself over to them.”
读古人——
思考politics——
写作：
- 《The Prince》（《君主论》，1513）
- 《Discourses on Livy》（《论李维》，1517）
- 《The Art of War》
- Plays（comedies）
- History of Florence
希望writings impress Medici——
Restore他to office
Never fully succeed
1527：去世，Florence——
Medici again被驱逐、republic briefly restored——
但他未能see it
《君主论》：争议之书
Dedicated to Lorenzo de’ Medici（younger）
Attempt curry favor
短、sharp handbook for princes
核心问题
君主如何获得、维持power？
不是：君主应该如何virtuous
而是：如何effective
这是descriptive，不是prescriptive？
（Or both？）
关键主张
1. Virtù vs Fortune
Virtù（virtu）不是"virtue"（道德）——
而是effectiveness、能力、勇气、cunning的混合
君主需要virtù对抗fortuna（fortune、命运）
Fortuna=不可控制的circumstances
但virtù可以部分master fortuna
Famous image：
Fortuna=河流——
可以build堤防、channel（when calm）——
防止洪水（when floods）
有virtù的君主=prepared、adaptable
2. 结果重于手段
Consequentialism：
行动评判by结果，不是intentions或手段
如果维持state、保护people需要cruelty——
那么do it
但：
Cruelty也有well-used和badly-used：
Well-used：
- Swift
- Done once
- Necessary for security
- Followed by benefits to people
Badly-used：
- Prolonged
- Increasing over time
- Arbitrary
君主不应gratuitously cruel——
但也不应soft when firmness needed
3. 被爱还是被畏？
Famous question：
Better to be loved or feared？
Machiavelli’s answer：
“It is better to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both.”
为什么？
Love depends on others（fickle）——
Fear depends on you（controllable）
但important qualifier：
不应被hated——
Hatred=dangerous
理想：feared但respected——
不是feared且hated
避免hatred通过：
不夺人property、honor、women
4. Lion与fox
君主应该学两种animals：
Lion（狮子）：
- Strength
- Courage
- 吓唬wolves（敌人）
Fox（狐狸）：
- Cunning
- 识别traps
- Deception when necessary
需要both：
只有strength=易受欺骗
只有cunning=缺乏威严
5. Appear virtuous
重要的不是be virtuous——
而是appear virtuous
People judge by appearances
君主应该seem：
- Merciful
- Faithful
- Humane
- Religious
- Honest
但实际：
Flexible根据necessity
能够"not be good"当情况要求
Shocking！
但Machiavelli argue：
现实politics如此——
Pretend otherwise=lose power
Chapter 15的关键passage
Machiavelli明确他的departure from传统：
“Many have imagined republics and principalities that have never been seen or known to exist in reality; for there is such a gap between how one lives and how one ought to live that anyone who abandons what is done for what ought to be done learns his ruin rather than his preservation.”
传统political philosophy（Plato、Cicero、Augustine等）：
描述ideal state
Machiavelli：
关注actual states、actual behavior
“Effectual truth”（effective reality）——
不是imagined ideals
这是modern political science的birth某种意义
《论李维》：共和主义
读《君主论》alone=误解Machiavelli
《Discourses on Livy》reveal：
他actually prefer republics over principalities！
共和的优越性
Long-term，republics more stable、prosperous、free than principalities
为什么？
1. 多样性的智慧
Republic tap many minds——
不只是one ruler
Collective wisdom>individual
2. 公民的virtù
Republics cultivate citizen virtue——
Active participation
Principalities create passivity
3. 法治
Laws rather than men——
More predictable、just
4. Liberty
Freedom=highest political good
Republics maximize this
Rome as model
Machiavelli admire Roman Republic（not Empire）：
- Mixed constitution（consuls、senate、tribunes）
- Citizen army（not mercenaries）
- Civic religion（functional）
- Conquest and expansion（greatness）
某些controversial aspects：
Conflict between classes（patricians vs plebeians）=
Not bad——
Actually healthy！
这produce good laws through competition
这是pluralism early version
那为什么写《君主论》？
Possible interpretations：
1. Situational
Florence当时需要strong prince——
从chaos到order
Later可以transition to republic
2. Separate works for separate purposes
《君主论》=for princes who exist——
How to operate given reality
《Discourses》=for republics（his preference）
3. Ironic reading？
某些scholars argue：
《君主论》actually是satire——
Expose princes’ wickedness——
Teach people recognize tyranny
（Unlikely但interesting）
Human Nature的Theory
Machiavelli’s cynical view？
他的assumptions：
1. Self-interest dominates
人primarily motivated by self-interest
不是altruism或virtue
“Men are ungrateful, fickle, liars, and deceivers, they shun danger and are greedy for profit.”
Harsh但（他认为）realistic
2. Fear>love as motivator
因为people self-interested——
Fear of punishment more reliable than love
3. Appearances matter
People easily deceived——
Judge by surface、immediate
不深究
4. 环境 shapes behavior
不是fixed human nature——
而是responsive to incentives、institutions
Good laws can channel self-interest toward public good
这是institution design idea
5. Conflict=natural
Human conflict不可避免——
But can be managed through institutions
Machiavelli vs Traditional Political Philosophy
Radical break：
| Traditional | Machiavelli |
|---|---|
| Politics从属于ethics | Politics has own logic |
| 理想state（Plato’s Republic） | 现实states（effectual truth） |
| Virtue=moral goodness | Virtù=effectiveness |
| Christianity guides politics | Religion=tool for politics |
| Natural law、divine law | Human law、power |
| Contemplation的primacy | Action的primacy |
这是"modern"政治思想的beginning：
Secular、realistic、focused on power
Religion的Role
Machiavelli对religion的view controversial：
As social cement
Religion=useful for state——
Not because true——
But because maintains order、morale
Roman religion praised——
Because supported civic virtue
Christianity criticized——
Because teaches passivity、otherworldliness
（Incompatible with strong state）
Personal belief？
Unclear Machiavelli’s personal faith
某些passages seem atheistic
Others conventional
Possibly：
Functionally atheist in politics——
Conventionally Christian in private
Or：
Complete skeptic
批评与Defense
Criticisms
1. Amoral
Separating politics和ethics=dangerous
Ends justify means logic=slippery slope
Tyranny、atrocity can be rationalized
2. Cynical
Too pessimistic about human nature
Self-fulfilling：treat people as selfish→they become so
3. Short-term thinking
Focus on power maintenance——
Ignore long-term sustainability、justice
4. Dangerous
Handbook for tyrants
Hitler、Stalin可能读它
（Though also republications、democrats）
Defenses
1. Descriptive不是prescriptive
Machiavelli describing how politics actually works——
不是endorsing
Honest about power=first step toward controlling it
2. Republican at heart
《Discourses》show他prefer liberty、republicanism
《君主论》=pragmatic for specific situation
3. Realism necessary
Naive idealism in politics=disaster
Better clear-eyed understanding of power
4. Limited context
他的advice=for Italian Renaissance context——
Fragmented states、constant warfare
Not universal endorsement of tyranny
影响
On political thought
Founding figure of modern political science：
Hobbes、Spinoza读他
Rousseau conflicted（admire且horrified）
American founders（Hamilton等）学习他
Realpolitik tradition（Bismarck）
On practice
Political leaders study《君主论》——
From Napoleon to Kissinger
“Machiavellian"成为描述ruthless politics的term
On ethics
“Dirty hands"问题：
Can good ends justify bad means？
Politicians必须get hands dirty to achieve good？
这是persistent moral dilemma
现代相关性
1. 政治现实主义
Machiavelli’s realism vs idealism debate continues：
国际关系中：
Realism（power、interest）vs idealism（values、institutions）
哪个better guide policy？
2. Ends and means
Consequentialism vs deontology
When if ever可以use bad means for good ends？
Torture to prevent terrorism？
Machiavelli force us confront this
3. 领导ethics
Leaders face different moral calculus than private individuals？
“Ethics of responsibility”（Weber）vs"ethics of conviction”？
4. Power的nature
Power dynamics他described仍relevant：
如何获得、maintain、lose power
政治、商业、任何组织
实践思考
1. 清醒认识power
不要naive about how power works
理解incentives、self-interest、competition
但：
不mean embrace cynicism completely
2. 结果matters
Intentions alone不够——
要考虑实际后果
但：
不能complete consequentialism——
某些means always wrong
3. Adaptability
Machiavelli’s virtù包括flexibility
根据circumstances调整
不是rigid ideology
4. 制度设计
从《Discourses》：
Good institutions可以channel self-interest toward public good
不是靠changing human nature——
而是smart design
Machiavelli——
Writing by candlelight——
在small farm——
流亡、tortured、disappointed
与ancient men对话——
Cicero、Livy、Caesar
思考power——
它的nature——
它的获取——
它的使用
他的conclusion：
Shocking——
Disturbing——
但maybe——
True？
Politics不是ethics——
虽然connected
权力有own logic——
忽视=peril
君主如果want survive——
必须learn——
Not to be good——
当necessary
这是evil teaching？
Or honest admission——
Of political reality？
500年后——
我们仍在debate
“Machiavellian"仍然——
Insult
但maybe——
我们all更Machiavellian——
Than we admit
他的gift：
Strip away pretense——
Show power——
Naked
What we do with——
This knowledge——
That remains——
Our choice