The Two Swords
Medieval political思想的central问题：
教会（Church）vs国家（State）
Spiritual power vs Temporal power
谁应该supreme？
Metaphor：“两把剑”
来自Luke 22:38：
Disciples对Jesus说：“看，这里有两把剑”
Jesus回答：“够了”
中世纪interpretation：
两把剑=两种authority：
- Spiritual sword（教会）
- Temporal sword（世俗rulers）
但谁wields both？
谁supreme？
这question引发centuries of conflict和reflection
Gelasian Doctrine（5世纪）
教宗Gelasius I（492-496）：
Two powers分离but both必要：
“There are two powers by which this world is chiefly ruled: the sacred authority of the priesthood and the royal power.”
Dualism（二元论）：
Priests handle spiritual matters——
Kings handle temporal matters
Ideally：
Cooperation、mutual respect
Priests obey kings in temporal——
Kings obey priests in spiritual
这是理想——
但实践中？
Constant struggles over boundaries
教宗至上论（Papal Supremacy）
Innocent III（教宗，1198-1216）
Most powerful medieval Pope：
Claim：
教宗=supreme over所有authority——
Both spiritual和temporal
理由：
1. Petrine authority
基督给Peter"kingdom的keys"（Matthew 16:19）——
教宗=Peter的successor——
所以有supreme authority
2. Sun和moon analogy
教宗=sun（self-luminous）
Emperor=moon（reflects sun’s light）
Temporal power derives from spiritual——
所以subordinate
3. Appointment right
教宗can crown（或depose）emperors——
This shows superiority
Boniface VIII（教宗，1294-1303）
Extreme papal claim：
Bull"Unam Sanctam"（1302）：
“It is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff.”
教宗’s power=absolute——
Over souls和bodies——
Over spiritual和temporal
Both swords belong to Church——
虽然secular rulers wield temporal sword——
但under教宗’s direction
这provoke fierce opposition
皇帝反击：Dante
Dante Alighieri（1265-1321）
（Yes，《神曲》的作者——also political philosopher！）
《De Monarchia》（《帝制论》）
Written to defend Emperor Henry VII——
Against papal interference
Argument：
World peace requires universal monarchy（empire）——
这来自理性、自然law——
不是from教宗
两种authority=parallel、independent：
教宗guide to eternal blessedness（spiritual）
Emperor guide to temporal happiness（this world）
Both directly from上帝——
不是one through the other
Emperor不subordinate to教宗！
这work被教会ban——
但influential
Marsilius of Padua（约1275-1342）
More radical than Dante：
《Defensor Pacis》（《和平的卫士》，1324）
Revolutionary political theory：
1. Popular sovereignty
Political authority来自people——
不是from上帝directly
People=source of law——
Ruler=executes people’s will
（Proto-democratic！）
2. Church subordinate to state
Complete reversal of papal claims！
Church=spiritual community——
但no coercive power
State can regulate Church——
Including calling councils
Clergy should obey secular law
3. General Council>Pope
Church authority在councils——
Representing all believers——
不是in Pope alone
Pope≠infallible
Can be judged by council
这is conciliarism（我们之前提到）
Condemned by教宗——
But Marsilius受Emperor Louis of Bavaria保护——
（同protect Ockham！）
William of Ockham的政治思想
Ockham also写political treatises（during exile）：
Against papal absolutism
教宗’s power limited to spiritual domain——
不extend to temporal
教宗can err——
Even in matters of faith（controversial！）
Individual conscience有rights——
Against unjust authority（even教宗）
Natural rights
Humans有natural rights——
Property、liberty——
来自自然law——
不是granted by Church或Emperor
Authority cannot arbitrarily violate这些
这is early individual rights理论——
Influencing later liberalism
Consent
Political authority requires consent——
至少implicitly
不是just divine right
Community has certain rights——
Even to resist unjust ruler（carefully qualified）
John of Salisbury（约1120-1180）
Earlier thinker（12世纪）：
《Policraticus》
First medieval book systematically treating politics
Organic theory of state：
State=body
- Head=prince（ruler）
- Soul=clergy
- Heart=senate（advisors）
- Hands=soldiers、officials
- Feet=peasants、workers
Each part有function——
All必要for health of whole
But also：
Tyrants（暴君）可以被killed——
如果irredeemably corrupt
Tyrannicide（弑君）=sometimes justified
（Controversial！）
条件：
- Ruler became tyrant（not legitimate king）
- No other remedy
- For common good，不是private revenge
这influenced later resistance theory
Thomas Aquinas的政治思想
Aquinas有political theory——
虽然不是他的main focus
Mixed constitution（混合政体）
Best government=mix of：
- Monarchy（one ruler）
- Aristocracy（rule by best）
- Democracy（people participation）
Combines advantages、checks excesses
类似Aristotle
Law的层次（复习并扩展）
Eternal law→Natural law→Human law
Human law valid只when：
- Derived from natural law
- For common good
- Made by legitimate authority
- Not impossible burdens
如果law违反natural law——
不是真正的law——
No obligation to obey
（But careful about resistance——
可能cause更大harm）
Church和State
Aquinas倾向papal superiority——
但nuanced：
In spiritual matters：教宗supreme
In temporal matters：king has authority——
但ultimately ordered toward spiritual end——
所以某种sense subordinate
不是Boniface VIII的extreme claim——
但favor Church
John Wycliffe（约1320-1384）
English reformer、philosopher：
Dominium（统治权）理论
All authority comes from上帝——
但conditional on grace（恩典）
如果ruler在罪中（mortal sin）——
Loses right to rule！
Church property也如此：
Corrupt clergy无权hold property——
Secular authorities can confiscate
Revolutionary implications！
Called for：
- Church reform
- 圣经translated to vernacular
- Reduce Church wealth和power
Condemned为heretic——
但influence proto-Protestant movements
（Hussites在Bohemia）
中世纪vs古典政治哲学
与Plato、Aristotle不同
Ancient Greeks：
- Polis（city-state）=frame
- Civic virtue=central
- 这世的eudaimonia=goal
Medieval：
- Universal entities（Church、Empire）
- Christian virtue=central
- Eternal salvation=ultimate goal
- Tension between此世和来世
新元素
中世纪add：
1. Dual authority问题
Ancient Greeks没有separate spiritual authority——
Religion和state integrated
2. Universal community
Christendom=超越particular states
3. Individual conscience、rights
（虽然limited，但seeds planted）
4. Consent理论（某些thinkers）
向近代过渡
中世纪晚期political思想——
Prepare for modern developments：
1. Secularization
逐渐：政治authority detach from religious——
Marsilius、Ockham start这process
Later：Machiavelli完全secular
2. Popular sovereignty
Marsilius、conciliarists：authority from people/community——
Later成为democracy的基础
3. Individual rights
Ockham的natural rights——
Later develop into human rights理论
4. Resistance theory
暴君can be resisted、even killed（John of Salisbury、Wycliffe）——
Later：social contract、revolution权利
5. Rule of law
Even rulers受law约束——
不是absolute
Constitutional思想的roots
与东方比较
vs Confucianism
Similarities：
- Organic view of society
- Ruler’s moral obligation
- Resistance against tyranny（如孟子：“诛一夫纣”）
Differences：
- 儒家没有dual authority问题
- Emperor=天子（religious和political combined）
- More emphasis on ritual、hierarchy
vs Islamic political thought
Similarities：
- Tension between religious和political authority
- Caliphate vs secular rulers
- Natural law concepts（in falsafa）
Differences：
- Islam：Sharia=divine law more central
- Less separation of religious-political
- Ummah（community）≠national states
vs Hindu思想
Hindu political thought（Arthashastra等）：
- Dharma（duty）guides rulers
- But more pragmatic、less idealistic than Christian
- Caste system=different social framework
现代意义
1. Church-state separation
中世纪struggles over spiritual vs temporal——
仍relevant：
政教分离in secular states——
但tensions remain（如宗教in public square）
中世纪debates提供历史perspective
2. Multiple authorities
谁has final say？
今天：
- National vs international law
- Federal vs state/local
- Legal vs moral authority
如何balance？
中世纪wrestle with类似问题
3. Limits of power
Even emperors、popes受limits——
这是rule of law ideal
今天：constitutional limits on power
4. Resistance权利
当can you resist unjust government？
中世纪thinkers首次systematic探讨——
仍是live question（civil disobedience、revolution）
5. Common good vs individual rights
Tension between：
Community welfare（common good）——
Individual rights
中世纪mainly emphasize前者——
但开始recognize后者
我们仍balance两者
实践
1. 多重忠诚
你有loyalties to：
- Family
- Community
- Nation
- Profession
- Moral principles
- Religious community（如果有）
当they conflict——
How prioritize？
中世纪thinkers的struggles=你的struggles
2. Authority的限制
No authority=absolute
Even legitimate authorities have bounds
Know when to obey、when to question
这需要judgment（prudence）
3. Common good
政治不只是个人利益competition——
也要consider：
What’s good for community as whole？
中世纪emphasize这——
我们sometimes forget
4. Long view
中世纪thinkers think about ultimate ends——
Not just immediate利益
在politics中——
Consider long-term consequences
两把剑——
经过千年——
仍然relevant metaphor：
不同types of authority——
不同domains——
需要balance、
Negotiation、
有时conflict
中世纪没solve this definitively——
也许unsolvable
但他们的思考——
Rigorous、creative、relevant——
教我们：
Politics不只是power——
也是关于justice、
Rights、
Common good、
Human dignity
这些themes——
永恒