从巅峰到衰落

13世纪：Scholasticism at peak——

Aquinas、Albertus、Scotus——

Systematic、rigorous、confident

综合Aristotle和Christianity——

建立impressive intellectual edifices

但14-15世纪：

System开始crack——

Confidence wane——

新的voices challenge旧的certainties

什么happened？

内部tensions

1. Via moderna vs Via antiqua

两条道路的split：

Via antiqua（古代道路）：

  • Realism about universals
  • Thomist或Scotist
  • Traditional metaphysics
  • Confidence in reason

Via moderna（现代道路）：

  • Nominalism（Ockham）
  • Skepticism about metaphysics
  • Emphasis on上帝’s absolute power
  • Limits of reason

Universities变成战场——

Two camps互相攻击

Instead of unified system——

有competing schools：

  • Thomists（Dominicans）
  • Scotists（Franciscans）
  • Ockhamists
  • Averroists（despite condemnations）

Proliferation of positions——

Decrease in consensus

2. 信仰与理性的分离加深

Aquinas：faith和reason harmonious

但Ockham和followers：

理性’s reach=much more limited

Many theological truths：

  • 不可证明by reason
  • 只能accept by faith

这不是reject reason——

但sharp separation of domains：

Philosophy=one thing

Theology=另一thing

Less integration

3. 过度subtlety

Later scholastics有时：

Obsessed with细微distinctions——

Endless subdivisions——

Debates over trivialities

Lost sight of big questions

Critics（especially humanists）mock：

“How many angels can dance on pin’s head？”

（Probably unfair——

Scholastics可能never真正debate this——

但symbolizes perceived absurdity）

4. Lack of innovation

By 15世纪：

Often just repeat earlier authorities——

Aquinas、Scotus、Ockham——

Commentary on commentary on commentary

Less original思考

System成为ossified（僵化）

外部挑战

1. Black Death（1347-1353）

Plague kill约1/3 of Europe人口

Massive social disruption：

  • Universities closed temporarily
  • Scholars died
  • Economic crisis
  • Psychological trauma

也是intellectual crisis：

如果上帝是good和just——

为什么允许这catastrophe？

Theodicy（辩神论）问题acute

某些turn to：

  • Mysticism（direct experience of上帝）
  • Apocalypticism（world ending）
  • Skepticism

Confidence in rational theology shaken

2. Great Schism（1378-1417）

Two（later three）rival Popes——

Each claiming legitimacy

如果Church’s highest authority divided——

How trust其interpretations？

Conciliar movement：

Councils>Pope？

Challenge hierarchical authority

也challenge以Church为中心的知识观

3. Hundred Years’ War（1337-1453）

France和England长期conflict

Constant warfare：

  • 破坏
  • Resources drain
  • Nationalism rise

大学often caught in politics

Paris university=pro-French

Oxford=pro-English

Philosophy politicized

4. Rise of vernacular languages

Increasingly，writing in vernacular——

不只是Latin：

  • Dante（Italian）
  • Chaucer（English）
  • German mystics

Latin=学者专属language——

Vernacular=broader audience

但also：fragment的international scholarly community

5. Early humanism

14世纪开始：

Petrarch和others：

对scholasticism不满：

Criticize：

  • Barbarous Latin
  • Obsession with logic-chopping
  • Ignore classical literature
  • Dry、technical

Prefer：

  • Classical sources直接
  • Rhetoric over logic
  • Eloquence
  • Moral philosophy over metaphysics

这是new intellectual style——

将dominate Renaissance

思想转变

1. Nominalism的影响

Ockham’s nominalism spread：

只有individuals exist——

Universals=mental constructs

Impact：

A. Metaphysics的collapse

如果no real universals、forms、essences——

Traditional metaphysics loses foundation

B. Empiricism的seeds

Knowledge must be based on experience of particulars——

不是speculation about universals

C. Science的方向

Focus on observation、particulars——

不是deduction from first principles

D. 个体主义

Individuals=primary reality——

This feeds later individualism（political、ethical）

2. 怀疑论的增长

Nicholas of Autrecourt（14世纪）：

Medieval skeptic——

Question：我们能确定know什么？

Beyond immediate experience和logic——

Little can be proven

Even causation不是demonstrable

（Anticipates Hume！）

结论：

Faith≠reducible to reason

Theology≠science

3. Mysticism的appeal

在理性’s limits变clear时——

许多turn to mystical experience：

  • Eckhart
  • Rhineland mystics
  • Women mystics（我们昨天讲）

直接experience of上帝——

Bypass complex rational theology

个人、内在、non-institutional

4. Voluntarism**

Emphasis on will（上帝’s和human）——

Over intellect

上帝’s free will=absolute——

可以command differently

Morality more contingent——

Less based on necessary rational truths

Human will also emphasized——

Freedom、choice

这feeds later Protestant emphasis on will、grace

Conciliarism和Church authority

争论：

Who has ultimate authority in Church？

Pope（traditional view）

vs

Council（conciliarists）

Background：Great Schism混乱

Council of Constance（1414-1418）：

End schism通过deposing rival Popes——

Elect new one

这suggest：Council>Pope？

Thinkers like Jean Gerson、Pierre d’Ailly argue：

Church=community of faithful——

Council代表community——

Can judge even Pope

这是proto-democratic思想——

在ecclesiastical context

但最终：

Papacy reassert authority

Conciliarism失败

但idea of popular sovereignty planted

经院哲学的遗产

虽然decline——

Scholasticism留下lasting legacy：

1. Method

Rigorous argumentation——

Systematic organization——

Careful distinction

这些remain ideals in philosophy

2. Questions

许多问题首次precisely formulated：

  • Universals
  • Causation
  • Free will vs determinism
  • Faith vs reason
  • Infinity
  • Time

Later philosophers continue engage这些

3. Institutions

Universities——

Scholasticism创建的——

Continue as centers of learning

Structure（faculties、degrees）persist

4. Integration

Attempt to synthesize：

  • Ancient philosophy（Aristotle）
  • Christian theology
  • Science

虽然synthesis eventually break apart——

Ambition影响later思想家

5. Language

Technical philosophical Latin——

Vocabulary developed by scholastics——

Used by later philosophers（even non-scholastic）

过渡到Renaissance

不是sharp break——

而是gradual transition：

15世纪：

Scholasticism仍在universities teach——

但alongside：

  • Humanism
  • Renewed Platonism
  • Mysticism
  • New science

某些figures bridge两个时代：

Nicholas of Cusa（明天会讲）：

  • Scholastic training
  • But mystical、Platonic turn
  • Interest in mathematics、cosmos

Continuity和change并存

为什么衰落？

Summary of factors：

内部：

  • Schools之间conflicts
  • 过度subtlety
  • Loss of creativity
  • 信仰-理性separation

外部：

  • Black Death、wars、schism（社会危机）
  • Humanism（intellectual rival）
  • Vernacular rise（language shift）
  • New learning from East（Greek texts）

但also：

Natural evolution——

任何intellectual movement——

Eventually exhaust possibilities——

新questions、new methods needed

现代视角

1. Cycles in思想史

Pattern repeats：

创新→system-building→elaboration→ossification→reaction

我们在other movements也看到：

  • Enlightenment→Romanticism
  • Logical positivism→后分析哲学
  • Structuralism→post-structuralism

Scholasticism的arc=example of这pattern

2. Integration的挑战

Reconciling different knowledge sources——

（Aristotle、Bible、experience）——

永远是challenge

现代：

How integrate science、religion、philosophy？

仍struggle with这

3. Specialization的dangers

Scholasticism变得too technical、insular——

Lost broader audience

现代academic philosophy sometimes similar：

Technical、专业化——

与public discourse disconnect

Humanist批评of scholasticism——

Echoes in批评of contemporary philosophy

4. Institutions的惯性

Universities、established schools——

有tendency toward conservatism——

Resist change

革新often来自outside或margins

这在今天also true

实践意义

1. 警惕僵化

任何system、method——

可能become ossified——

Lose original vitality

需要：

  • Periodic renewal
  • Openness to critique
  • Willingness to evolve

2. Balance specialization和accessibility

Deep expertise important——

但不应lose connection to：

  • Broader questions
  • Public understanding
  • Practical wisdom

Scholastics at best=both

At worst=only technical

3. Integrate diverse sources

Don’t rely on single authority或tradition——

Like scholastics综合Aristotle、theology——

今天：综合science、philosophy、diverse cultures

4. Recognize limits

Later scholastics学到：

理性有limits——

不是everything可证明

Some mysteries remain

这是humility——

Valuable today

经院哲学的黄昏——

不是simple failure故事——

而是complex transformation：

From one mode of思考——

To another

它的confidence——

在synthesis、system、reason——

终于crack

给way to：

New uncertainties、

New questions、

New approaches

但它教gave us——

Rigor、

Precision、

Courage to ask hard questions

这legacy——

仍在

每次我们：

Make careful distinction——

Build systematic argument——

Seek to reconcile different truths——

我们echo

Those medieval masters——

在他们的cells、

By candlelight、

Wrestling with永恒的questions

虽然他们的answers——

No longer satisfy us——

他们的method、

他们的seriousness、

他们的dedication to truth——

Remain

模范