最古老的哲学问题之一

问题看似simple:

“Red”(红色)exists吗?

当然!你会说——

看,这apple是red,那rose是red

但wait——

“这apple"exists(particular thing)

“那rose"exists(particular thing)

但"redness itself”(红色本身)exists吗?

作为separate from particular red things?

这是universals(共相)问题——

引发2000+年的debate

Universals问题的起源

Plato的Forms

Plato首先explicit提出:

有many particular beautiful things——

但也有Beauty Itself(美本身)——

Perfect、eternal、unchanging Form

Particular things=imperfect copies of Form

他的example(《理想国》):

Craftsman making beds——

Looks at Form of Bed(in realm of Forms)——

Creates particular bed(imperfect copy)

所以:

Universals(Forms)exist——

In separate realm——

More real than particulars

Aristotle的批评

Aristotle反对Plato:

Forms不在separate realm——

而在particular things中

“Horse-ness”(马性)——

存在于particular horses——

Not in heaven of Forms

Universal=what’s common to many particulars——

But exists in them,not separately

这是moderate realism(温和实在论)

中世纪的Debate

问题在中世纪re-ignite:

Porphyry’s questions

Porphyry(3世纪Neo-Platonist)——

在《Isagoge》(Introduction to Aristotle)中提出:

关于genera(属)和species(种):

  1. Do they exist in reality或仅在thought中?
  2. 如果exist in reality,是corporeal还是incorporeal?
  3. 是separate from sensible things还是in them?

这些questions传到中世纪——

Through Boethius’s translation——

成为核心debate

Three main positions emerge

1. Realism(实在论)

Universals真实exist——

Independent of mind

2. Nominalism(唯名论)

只有names exist——

No real universals

3. Conceptualism(概念论)

Universals exist as concepts in mind

Let’s explore each详细

Realism(实在论)

Extreme realism

Early medieval position(如William of Champeaux):

Universal=single entity——

Wholly present in each individual

“Humanity”=one thing——

Completely in Socrates、Plato、Aristotle

Problem(指出by Abelard):

如果humanity wholly in Socrates——

And also wholly in Plato——

那么Socrates=Plato?

(因为same thing in both)

Absurd!

Moderate realism

More sophisticated version(Aquinas、Scotus):

Universals exist三个modes:

1. Ante rem(在事物之前)

在上帝’s mind——

As divine ideas(exemplars)

上帝’s plan for creation

2. In re(在事物之中)

在particular things中——

作为their forms或natures

“Humanity"在Socrates中——

不是separate from him——

但是real aspect of him

3. Post rem(在事物之后)

在human mind中——

As abstracted concepts

我们的intellect抽象"humanity”——

From experiencing particular humans

所以universals:

  • 在上帝中=prior to things
  • 在things中=their forms
  • 在我们mind中=concepts

这reconcile Plato和Aristotle某程度:

Like Plato:在divine mind(但不是separate Forms)

Like Aristotle:在things中

Plus:在human mind

Arguments for realism

1. Science的可能性

科学study什么?

如果只有particulars——

No generalizations、laws

但科学make universal statements:

“All humans are mortal”

这seems refer to universal"humanity”

2. Predication

当我们say:

“Socrates是human”

“Human"指什么?

如果no universal humanity——

这statement meaningless?

3. Similarity

Particular things确实similar——

Socrates和Plato both human

What grounds this similarity?

Realist:共同的universal nature

4. Abstraction

Intellect can think"humanity"in general——

This must correspond to something real

Nominalism(唯名论)

Roscelin(早期唯名论)

11世纪:

只有individual things exist——

Universals=mere words(nomina)

“Humanity”=just a sound我们make——

Or ink marks

No reality对应

Condemned因为theological implications:

Trinity doctrine problem——

如果no universal"divine nature”——

Three persons=three gods?

Ockham的sophisticated nominalism

我们昨天讨论过:

只有particulars exist

Universal terms:

  • 不refer to universal entities
  • 而是stand for多个individuals
  • Through mental acts和linguistic convention

“Human"这word——

Refers to Socrates、Plato、Aristotle、etc.

(所有individual humans)——

不是separate universal entity

Arguments for nominalism

1. Ockham’s razor

为什么假设universals exist——

If particulars + mental concepts足够explain?

Simpler ontology:只有individuals

2. Experience

我们only experience particulars——

This red apple,that red rose

从未experience"redness itself"separate

3. Theological

上帝creates individuals——

不是abstractions

上帝’s knowledge=of particulars

4. Avoid problems

Realism的problems(如extreme realism的absurdities)——

Avoided如果no universals

Conceptualism(概念论)

Abelard的position

Peter Abelard(12世纪):

Universals不exist in reality(outside mind)——

But也不只是words(vs Roscelin)

Universals=concepts in mind

这些concepts有foundation in reality:

Particular things确实similar——

我们的mind recognizes similarities——

Forms general concepts

但concept≠separate entity in world

只在mind中

Arguments

1. Avoids extremes

不需要commit to universal entities(vs realism)

但recognizes universals有cognitive content(vs pure nominalism)

2. Psychological plausibility

我们确实have general concepts——

这是mental fact

但不need posit extra-mental universals

3. Linguistic

Universal terms have meaning——

这meaning=concept

不是external entity

为什么这个debate matters?

看似abstract——

但implications深远:

1. Science和knowledge

Realism:

科学discover真实universal laws/natures

Nominalism:

科学=classification和prediction based on patterns——

不是discovering universals

影响科学哲学至今:

Laws of nature=real(realism)——

还是just descriptive regularities(nominalism)?

2. Ethics

Realism:

Good、justice等=real universal properties

Moral realism

Nominalism:

“Good”=just word we apply——

No universal Good

Moral anti-realism?

3. Mathematics

Realism:

Numbers、mathematical objects=real universals

Exist independently

Nominalism:

只是symbols、concepts——

No independent existence

现代philosophy of math仍debate这

4. Language

Realism:

Language tracks reality’s structure

Nominalism:

Language=convention——

不necessarily reflect reality’s structure

5. Individuation

什么makes individuals individual?

Realism:

Universal form + individual matter(Aquinas)

Or form + haecceity(Scotus)

Nominalism:

Individuals just are individual——

No need for principles of individuation

东西方对比

中国哲学

儒家:

Focus on particular virtues in concrete situations——

Less interest in abstract universals

“仁”=practiced in specific relationships——

不是abstract universal

道家:

道=beyond名(names)——

某种sense nominalist?

“道可道,非常道”——

True dao超越linguistic categories

佛教:

No fixed essences(无我)——

一切因缘所生——

类似nominalism:no universal natures

但佛教有universal categories(如五蕴、十二因缘)

印度哲学

Nyaya-Vaisheshika:

Realists about universals(like Plato某程度)

Buddhist Dharmakirti:

Nominalist——

只有particulars(刹那生灭)

跨文化recurrence of same debate!

现代哲学

Debate continues新形式:

Quine

20世纪:

“To be is to be the value of a bound variable”

我们commit to什么entities——

Through our best theories?

“Ontological commitment”

某种nominalist倾向——

But复杂

Armstrong

Australian philosopher:

Moderate realist——

Universals=properties in things

科学需要universals to explain laws

Lewis

Extreme nominalist:

只有particulars(concrete individuals)

通过"similarity"explain共相

No need for universals

我的立场?

作为reader,你可能wonder:

谁对?

Honestly:

Philosophers还在debate!

没有consensus

Each position有strengths和weaknesses:

Realism:

+ Explains science、predication、similarity

- Mysterious metaphysics(universals到底在哪?)

Nominalism:

+ Sparse ontology,经验主义

- 难解释science、language的success

Conceptualism:

+ Middle way

- Still questions about concepts的nature

实践意义

1. 警惕reification

不要把concepts当作things

例:

“Society wants…”

(society=collection of individuals,不是separate entity)

“The market demands…”

(market=individuals’ transactions,不是independent agent)

这是nominalist警告:

Don’t multiply entities

2. Recognize patterns但don’t over-abstract

Patterns在particulars中确实存在——

但小心抽象过度——

Lose sight of individuals

Example:

统计、generalizations useful——

但每个person是unique individual

3. Language和reality

Words不总是对应real entities——

Just because we有word for X——

不mean X exists as separate thing

Nominalist提醒:

语言≠reality的perfect mirror

4. 寻求balance

在极端realism(everything是universal)——

和极端nominalism(only particulars)之间——

可能需要nuanced position

Recognize:

  • Particulars的primacy(in experience)
  • Patterns的reality(in similarities)
  • Concepts的usefulness(in thought)
  • Language的conventionality(in naming)

共相之争——

从Plato到今天——

2000+年

Still no final answer

但这不是failure——

而是哲学的richness:

Deep questions——

Multiple perspectives——

Ongoing dialogue

What do YOU think?

当你say

“Justice is important”

指什么?

Universal Justice?

Or just particular just acts?

Or concept in mind?

这choice——

Subtle但profound——

Shapes你的whole worldview

Think carefully——

区分(Distinguo!)——

这是philosophical wisdom