“Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity”

这句话——

Famous as “Ockham’s Razor”(奥卡姆剃刀)——

虽然William of Ockham(约1287-1347)never exactly说过这exact words——

但captures他的philosophical spirit perfectly

Principle of parsimony(简约原则):

不要假设more entities than necessary to explain something

这revolutionize medieval philosophy——

并continue影响科学到今天

生平:反叛的修士

早年

出生于Ockham(英格兰Surrey)——

故名William of Ockham

年轻时加入Franciscans(方济各会)

在Oxford学习和教学(约1310-1319)

Academic career interrupted

从未获得master’s degree in theology——

虽然完成了studies

为什么?

他的teachings被指控heretical——

1324:被召到Avignon(教宗驻地)——

面对charges

在Avignon四年——

Writings examined——

但从未正式condemned

Political conflict

在Avignon时——

卷入Franciscan poverty争议:

Franciscans believe:

Christ和apostles owned nothing——

Absolute poverty=ideal

教宗John XXII declare this heretical——

Ockham支持Franciscan position——

Against Pope

1328:

与Franciscan General Michael of Cesena一起——

逃离Avignon——

Seek protection from Holy Roman Emperor Louis of Bavaria

Allegedly对Emperor说:

“You defend me with the sword, and I will defend you with the pen.”

Exile和later life

Remainder of life(1328-1347):

在Munich,in exile——

写political treatises——

Attacking papal authority——

Defending imperial power

1347:去世(可能from Black Death)

从未reconcile with Church——

死时仍在excommunication下

唯名论(Nominalism)

Ockham最famous for nominalism——

在universals问题上的radical position

Universals问题(复习)

古老的问题:

Universals(如"redness"、“humanity”)exist吗?

Three main positions:

1. Realism(实在论)

Universals真实exist——

Plato:在separate realm(Forms)

Moderate realism(Aquinas、Scotus):在particular things中

2. Conceptualism

Universals只在mind中exist——

作为concepts

3. Nominalism(唯名论)

Universals根本不exist——

只有names(nomina)

Ockham’s radical nominalism

只有individuals真实exist:

这particular red apple

那particular red rose

这particular human Socrates

“Redness”、“humanity”=

只是names我们给相似individuals——

不是separate reality

Not even in things作为real universal——

只在我们的language和thought中

Universal terms:

  • 不指向universal entities
  • 而是stand for多个individuals
  • 通过convention和mental acts

例:

“Human"这word——

不指向universal humanity(不存在)——

而是stands for Socrates、Plato、Aristotle等所有individual humans

为什么这是radical?

Aquinas和Scotus:

至少承认universals有某种reality(在things中或as formal features)

Ockham:

完全deny任何universal reality——

只有particulars + mental concepts + words

这极大simplify ontology:

不需要forms、essences、formal distinctions——

只有individual things

这是"剃刀"的first application:

Cut away unnecessary entities(universals)

奥卡姆剃刀

Principle

虽然Ockham没说exact famous phrase——

他express类似ideas:

“Plurality should not be posited without necessity”

“It is futile to do with more what can be done with fewer”

Meaning:

在解释phenomenon时——

选择simplest explanation——

Don’t假设more entities、causes、principles than needed

Applications

1. Ontology(存在论)

不要假设:

  • Universal forms(if individuals足够)
  • Separate essences(if just individuals)
  • Abstract entities(if concrete够用)

2. Causation

不要假设complex causal chains——

If simpler causation可以explain

3. Theology

甚至在theology:

不要multiply divine attributes beyond necessity

(虽然这controversial!)

Not just simplicity for aesthetics

Ockham的point不是:

“Simpler theories are prettier”

而是epistemological(认识论):

我们只应commit to entities——

For which we有evidence/necessity

无证据的entities=unjustified metaphysical baggage

This is proto-empiricism:

Experience和logical necessity=knowledge的grounds——

不是speculative metaphysics

上帝的绝对权能

Ockham对上帝’s power的理解——

极大影响他的philosophy

Distinction

Potentia Dei absoluta(上帝的绝对权能)

vs

Potentia Dei ordinata(上帝的规定权能)

绝对权能:

上帝能做anything not involving logical contradiction

规定权能:

上帝actually does,given上帝’s chosen order

Implications

上帝’s绝对权能=vast:

上帝could have:

  • Created different natural laws
  • Made different moral laws(除了某些necessities)
  • Arranged world completely differently

这不是实际发生——

但logically possible for上帝

结果:

世界的many features=contingent(偶然的)——

不是metaphysically necessary

我们不能从pure reason推出world必须是这样——

需要empirical observation

这进一步推toward empiricism

知识论:Intuitive cognition

Ockham的theory of knowledge:

Two types of cognition

1. Intuitive cognition(直观认知)

直接awareness of individual existing thing

例:

我看这apple(此时此地存在)——

这是intuitive cognition

特点:

  • Direct
  • Of particulars
  • Guarantees existence of object
  • Source of certain knowledge

2. Abstractive cognition(抽象认知)

Cognition不require object存在:

我想象apple(不在面前)——

这是abstractive

特点:

  • Indirect
  • Can be of non-existent things
  • Less certain

Contrast with Aquinas:

Aquinas:intellect抽象universal forms from particulars

Ockham:intellect knows particulars直接——

然后forms general concepts(但这些不是知of real universals)

Empiricism roots

Knowledge starts with experience:

Intuitive cognition of individuals——

This is foundation

Universal concepts=secondary——

Constructed by mind from experience of particulars

不是discovered in reality

这anticipates British empiricism(Locke、Hume):

Experience=source of knowledge——

理性alone不足

自然哲学与科学

Ockham的nominalism影响自然哲学:

Against substantial forms

Scholastics(如Aquinas):

Things有substantial forms——

例:fire有"form of fire"使它hot、bright等

Ockham:

这是unnecessary!

Just say:fire是hot、bright

不需要额外的"form”

剃刀cut掉forms

Causation

Ockham skeptical about necessary causation:

我们observe:

Fire接触wood→wood burns

But:

我们不observe necessary connection——

只是constant conjunction

这anticipates Hume!

上帝(通过绝对权能)could prevent burning——

So connection不是absolutely necessary

Impact on science

Ockham的approach:

Focus on observables——

不是speculative metaphysical entities

这spirit=modern科学:

  • Empirical observation
  • Parsimony(奥卡姆剃刀)
  • Avoid unnecessary hypotheses

虽然Ockham本人不是scientist——

His method影响later科学革命

Political philosophy

Ockham’s political writings(during exile):

Against papal supremacy

教宗claim:

Absolute authority over both spiritual和temporal matters

Ockham argue:

教宗’s authority limited to spiritual——

Temporal affairs=secular rulers的domain

Separation of powers

Individual rights

Ockham强调:

Individuals有natural rights——

包括property rights

这不是granted by Church or Emperor——

而是natural

This is early theory of individual rights——

Influencing later liberal思想

Political authority requires consent of governed——

不是just divine right

这是proto-democratic idea

Ockham vs Aquinas

两者对比sharp:

AquinasOckham
Moderate realism(universals在things中)Radical nominalism(只有particulars)
Essence-existence distinctionReject(unnecessary complexity)
Rich metaphysics(being、causation、etc.)Sparse ontology(just individuals)
理性can know much about上帝理性的limits更strict
Natural law=rational、necessaryMoral law more dependent on上帝’s will
Harmony of reason和faithSharper separation
IntellectualismVoluntarism(意志优先)

Ockham’s philosophy=reaction against——

Elaborate metaphysical systems of earlier scholastics

Return to simpler、more empirical approach

奥卡姆剃刀在现代

在科学中

剃刀=methodological principle in science:

在competing theories中——

Prefer simpler one(fewer assumptions)

例:

Copernicus vs Ptolemy:

Heliocentric(日心)simpler than geocentric + epicycles

Newton’s laws vs Aristotelian physics:

Fewer principles,greater explanatory power

Einstein:

“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.”

(Echo of Ockham)

在哲学中

现代philosophy often invoke剃刀:

Quine’s"desert landscapes"(sparse ontology)

Davidson’s anomalous monism(避免mental substances)

Physicalism vs dualism debates

Limitations

剃刀≠infallible:

1. 复杂性sometimes necessary

Reality可能真的complex——

Simpler theory可能false

2. “Simplicity"本身ambiguous

Fewer entities?Fewer laws?Fewer parameters?

3. Practical vs theoretical simplicity

Sometimes more entities→simpler overall theory

但as heuristic(启发法)——

剃刀仍valuable:

Burden of proof on more complex theories

Ockham’s遗产

Nominalism的传播

Via moderna(现代道路)——

Nominalist tradition in late medieval universities

vs

Via antiqua(古代道路)——

Realist tradition(Aquinas、Scotus)

Nominalism成为major school——

Influence until Reformation

Empiricism的seeds

Ockham’s emphasis on:

  • Experience as knowledge source
  • Skepticism about pure reason’s reach
  • Focus on particulars

Anticipate British empiricists(Locke、Berkeley、Hume)

Reformation connection

Luther studied Ockhamist theology——

Ockham’s voluntarism(上帝’s free will)——

和sharp faith-reason separation——

可能influence Luther’s theology

虽然connection controversial

科学革命

Ockham’s method:

Simplicity、empiricism、rejection of unnecessary entities——

Part of intellectual background for科学革命

批评

1. Too radical?

Cut away too much?

Universals可能有certain reality——

Ockham’s nominalism可能over-simplify

2. Skepticism的危险

如果reason’s power这么limited——

知识如何possible?

Leads toward skepticism(Ockham本人didn’t想要)

3. Theological problems

上帝’s绝对权能如果无限——

Morality becomes arbitrary?

如果上帝could command differently——

What grounds ethics?

4.剃刀可误用

Simplicity≠truth

历史上,some"simpler"theories proven wrong

Atomism vs fields、waves;

不总是simpler=correct

实践意义

1. Intellectual hygiene

问自己:

我的explanation假设了哪些entities?

它们all necessary吗?

Can I explain with fewer?

这是清晰思维的discipline

2. 避免over-complication

在理论、arguments、systems中——

Resist temptation to add unnecessary elements

KISS principle(Keep It Simple, Stupid)

3. Empiricism

Ground beliefs in experience——

不是pure speculation

What can I actually observe?

What am I assuming without evidence?

4. Parsimony in daily life

不只是intellectual:

在生活中——

Simpler often better:

  • Fewer possessions(minimalism)
  • Fewer commitments
  • Clearer communication

不是always——

但作为default,try简约

奥卡姆剃刀——

从14世纪English修士——

Exiled、rebellious、

Cutting through metaphysical excess——

到现代科学实验室——

仍在cutting

不要multiply entities——

Beyond necessity

Simple、elegant、

Powerful

这是Ockham’s gift:

A tool for clarity——

In thinking、

In theorizing、

In living

Shave away unnecessary——

Keep essential

这是智慧——

In any age