“Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity”
这句话——
Famous as “Ockham’s Razor”(奥卡姆剃刀)——
虽然William of Ockham(约1287-1347)never exactly说过这exact words——
但captures他的philosophical spirit perfectly
Principle of parsimony(简约原则):
不要假设more entities than necessary to explain something
这revolutionize medieval philosophy——
并continue影响科学到今天
生平:反叛的修士
早年
出生于Ockham(英格兰Surrey)——
故名William of Ockham
年轻时加入Franciscans(方济各会)
在Oxford学习和教学(约1310-1319)
Academic career interrupted
从未获得master’s degree in theology——
虽然完成了studies
为什么?
他的teachings被指控heretical——
1324:被召到Avignon(教宗驻地)——
面对charges
在Avignon四年——
Writings examined——
但从未正式condemned
Political conflict
在Avignon时——
卷入Franciscan poverty争议:
Franciscans believe:
Christ和apostles owned nothing——
Absolute poverty=ideal
教宗John XXII declare this heretical——
Ockham支持Franciscan position——
Against Pope
1328:
与Franciscan General Michael of Cesena一起——
逃离Avignon——
Seek protection from Holy Roman Emperor Louis of Bavaria
Allegedly对Emperor说:
“You defend me with the sword, and I will defend you with the pen.”
Exile和later life
Remainder of life(1328-1347):
在Munich,in exile——
写political treatises——
Attacking papal authority——
Defending imperial power
1347:去世(可能from Black Death)
从未reconcile with Church——
死时仍在excommunication下
唯名论(Nominalism)
Ockham最famous for nominalism——
在universals问题上的radical position
Universals问题(复习)
古老的问题:
Universals(如"redness"、“humanity”)exist吗?
Three main positions:
1. Realism(实在论)
Universals真实exist——
Plato:在separate realm(Forms)
Moderate realism(Aquinas、Scotus):在particular things中
2. Conceptualism
Universals只在mind中exist——
作为concepts
3. Nominalism(唯名论)
Universals根本不exist——
只有names(nomina)
Ockham’s radical nominalism
只有individuals真实exist:
这particular red apple
那particular red rose
这particular human Socrates
“Redness”、“humanity”=
只是names我们给相似individuals——
不是separate reality
Not even in things作为real universal——
只在我们的language和thought中
Universal terms:
- 不指向universal entities
- 而是stand for多个individuals
- 通过convention和mental acts
例:
“Human"这word——
不指向universal humanity(不存在)——
而是stands for Socrates、Plato、Aristotle等所有individual humans
为什么这是radical?
Aquinas和Scotus:
至少承认universals有某种reality(在things中或as formal features)
Ockham:
完全deny任何universal reality——
只有particulars + mental concepts + words
这极大simplify ontology:
不需要forms、essences、formal distinctions——
只有individual things
这是"剃刀"的first application:
Cut away unnecessary entities(universals)
奥卡姆剃刀
Principle
虽然Ockham没说exact famous phrase——
他express类似ideas:
“Plurality should not be posited without necessity”
“It is futile to do with more what can be done with fewer”
Meaning:
在解释phenomenon时——
选择simplest explanation——
Don’t假设more entities、causes、principles than needed
Applications
1. Ontology(存在论)
不要假设:
- Universal forms(if individuals足够)
- Separate essences(if just individuals)
- Abstract entities(if concrete够用)
2. Causation
不要假设complex causal chains——
If simpler causation可以explain
3. Theology
甚至在theology:
不要multiply divine attributes beyond necessity
(虽然这controversial!)
Not just simplicity for aesthetics
Ockham的point不是:
“Simpler theories are prettier”
而是epistemological(认识论):
我们只应commit to entities——
For which we有evidence/necessity
无证据的entities=unjustified metaphysical baggage
This is proto-empiricism:
Experience和logical necessity=knowledge的grounds——
不是speculative metaphysics
上帝的绝对权能
Ockham对上帝’s power的理解——
极大影响他的philosophy
Distinction
Potentia Dei absoluta(上帝的绝对权能)
vs
Potentia Dei ordinata(上帝的规定权能)
绝对权能:
上帝能做anything not involving logical contradiction
规定权能:
上帝actually does,given上帝’s chosen order
Implications
上帝’s绝对权能=vast:
上帝could have:
- Created different natural laws
- Made different moral laws(除了某些necessities)
- Arranged world completely differently
这不是实际发生——
但logically possible for上帝
结果:
世界的many features=contingent(偶然的)——
不是metaphysically necessary
我们不能从pure reason推出world必须是这样——
需要empirical observation
这进一步推toward empiricism
知识论:Intuitive cognition
Ockham的theory of knowledge:
Two types of cognition
1. Intuitive cognition(直观认知)
直接awareness of individual existing thing
例:
我看这apple(此时此地存在)——
这是intuitive cognition
特点:
- Direct
- Of particulars
- Guarantees existence of object
- Source of certain knowledge
2. Abstractive cognition(抽象认知)
Cognition不require object存在:
我想象apple(不在面前)——
这是abstractive
特点:
- Indirect
- Can be of non-existent things
- Less certain
Contrast with Aquinas:
Aquinas:intellect抽象universal forms from particulars
Ockham:intellect knows particulars直接——
然后forms general concepts(但这些不是知of real universals)
Empiricism roots
Knowledge starts with experience:
Intuitive cognition of individuals——
This is foundation
Universal concepts=secondary——
Constructed by mind from experience of particulars
不是discovered in reality
这anticipates British empiricism(Locke、Hume):
Experience=source of knowledge——
理性alone不足
自然哲学与科学
Ockham的nominalism影响自然哲学:
Against substantial forms
Scholastics(如Aquinas):
Things有substantial forms——
例:fire有"form of fire"使它hot、bright等
Ockham:
这是unnecessary!
Just say:fire是hot、bright
不需要额外的"form”
剃刀cut掉forms
Causation
Ockham skeptical about necessary causation:
我们observe:
Fire接触wood→wood burns
But:
我们不observe necessary connection——
只是constant conjunction
这anticipates Hume!
上帝(通过绝对权能)could prevent burning——
So connection不是absolutely necessary
Impact on science
Ockham的approach:
Focus on observables——
不是speculative metaphysical entities
这spirit=modern科学:
- Empirical observation
- Parsimony(奥卡姆剃刀)
- Avoid unnecessary hypotheses
虽然Ockham本人不是scientist——
His method影响later科学革命
Political philosophy
Ockham’s political writings(during exile):
Against papal supremacy
教宗claim:
Absolute authority over both spiritual和temporal matters
Ockham argue:
教宗’s authority limited to spiritual——
Temporal affairs=secular rulers的domain
Separation of powers
Individual rights
Ockham强调:
Individuals有natural rights——
包括property rights
这不是granted by Church or Emperor——
而是natural
This is early theory of individual rights——
Influencing later liberal思想
Consent
Political authority requires consent of governed——
不是just divine right
这是proto-democratic idea
Ockham vs Aquinas
两者对比sharp:
| Aquinas | Ockham |
|---|---|
| Moderate realism(universals在things中) | Radical nominalism(只有particulars) |
| Essence-existence distinction | Reject(unnecessary complexity) |
| Rich metaphysics(being、causation、etc.) | Sparse ontology(just individuals) |
| 理性can know much about上帝 | 理性的limits更strict |
| Natural law=rational、necessary | Moral law more dependent on上帝’s will |
| Harmony of reason和faith | Sharper separation |
| Intellectualism | Voluntarism(意志优先) |
Ockham’s philosophy=reaction against——
Elaborate metaphysical systems of earlier scholastics
Return to simpler、more empirical approach
奥卡姆剃刀在现代
在科学中
剃刀=methodological principle in science:
在competing theories中——
Prefer simpler one(fewer assumptions)
例:
Copernicus vs Ptolemy:
Heliocentric(日心)simpler than geocentric + epicycles
Newton’s laws vs Aristotelian physics:
Fewer principles,greater explanatory power
Einstein:
“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler.”
(Echo of Ockham)
在哲学中
现代philosophy often invoke剃刀:
Quine’s"desert landscapes"(sparse ontology)
Davidson’s anomalous monism(避免mental substances)
Physicalism vs dualism debates
Limitations
剃刀≠infallible:
1. 复杂性sometimes necessary
Reality可能真的complex——
Simpler theory可能false
2. “Simplicity"本身ambiguous
Fewer entities?Fewer laws?Fewer parameters?
3. Practical vs theoretical simplicity
Sometimes more entities→simpler overall theory
但as heuristic(启发法)——
剃刀仍valuable:
Burden of proof on more complex theories
Ockham’s遗产
Nominalism的传播
Via moderna(现代道路)——
Nominalist tradition in late medieval universities
vs
Via antiqua(古代道路)——
Realist tradition(Aquinas、Scotus)
Nominalism成为major school——
Influence until Reformation
Empiricism的seeds
Ockham’s emphasis on:
- Experience as knowledge source
- Skepticism about pure reason’s reach
- Focus on particulars
Anticipate British empiricists(Locke、Berkeley、Hume)
Reformation connection
Luther studied Ockhamist theology——
Ockham’s voluntarism(上帝’s free will)——
和sharp faith-reason separation——
可能influence Luther’s theology
虽然connection controversial
科学革命
Ockham’s method:
Simplicity、empiricism、rejection of unnecessary entities——
Part of intellectual background for科学革命
批评
1. Too radical?
Cut away too much?
Universals可能有certain reality——
Ockham’s nominalism可能over-simplify
2. Skepticism的危险
如果reason’s power这么limited——
知识如何possible?
Leads toward skepticism(Ockham本人didn’t想要)
3. Theological problems
上帝’s绝对权能如果无限——
Morality becomes arbitrary?
如果上帝could command differently——
What grounds ethics?
4.剃刀可误用
Simplicity≠truth
历史上,some"simpler"theories proven wrong
Atomism vs fields、waves;
不总是simpler=correct
实践意义
1. Intellectual hygiene
问自己:
我的explanation假设了哪些entities?
它们all necessary吗?
Can I explain with fewer?
这是清晰思维的discipline
2. 避免over-complication
在理论、arguments、systems中——
Resist temptation to add unnecessary elements
KISS principle(Keep It Simple, Stupid)
3. Empiricism
Ground beliefs in experience——
不是pure speculation
What can I actually observe?
What am I assuming without evidence?
4. Parsimony in daily life
不只是intellectual:
在生活中——
Simpler often better:
- Fewer possessions(minimalism)
- Fewer commitments
- Clearer communication
不是always——
但作为default,try简约
奥卡姆剃刀——
从14世纪English修士——
Exiled、rebellious、
Cutting through metaphysical excess——
到现代科学实验室——
仍在cutting
不要multiply entities——
Beyond necessity
Simple、elegant、
Powerful
这是Ockham’s gift:
A tool for clarity——
In thinking、
In theorizing、
In living
Shave away unnecessary——
Keep essential
这是智慧——
In any age