什么是Scholasticism?
Scholasticism(经院哲学)
Not只是一套doctrines——
而是a method(方法)
在中世纪universities developed——
用于teaching和debating philosophy和theology
“Scholastic"来自"schola”(学校)——
这是university哲学的method
时期:约1100-1500
高峰:13世纪(Albertus、Aquinas、Scotus)
中世纪大学的兴起
12世纪Renaissance
Contrary to popular belief——
“Dark Ages"并非完全dark!
12世纪:intellectual revival:
1. Knowledge的recovery
通过translations from Arabic:
- Aristotle的complete works
- Greek science(Euclid、Ptolemy、Galen)
- Islamic philosophy(Avicenna、Averroes)
2. 新institutions:Universities
First universities出现:
- Bologna(约1088,法律)
- Paris(约1150,神学和arts)
- Oxford(约1167)
- Cambridge(1209)
- 等等
这些不同于earlier monastic schools——
More autonomous、organized、standardized
University structure
典型university有四个faculties(学院):
1. Arts Faculty(文学院)
Undergraduate level——
Study:
- Trivium:grammar、logic、rhetoric
- Quadrivium:arithmetic、geometry、astronomy、music
- Aristotle’s philosophy
获得:Bachelor of Arts→Master of Arts
2. Theology Faculty
Highest faculty——
Study Bible、Church Fathers、Peter Lombard’s Sentences
Training future priests、bishops、theologians
3. Law Faculty
Canon law(教会法)或civil law
4. Medicine Faculty
Based on Galen、Avicenna
Most scholars in philosophy和theology——
Start in Arts,then进入Theology或other higher faculty
The Scholastic Method
Core features:
1. Lectio(讲读)
Teacher reads(lectio)authoritative text——
Typically:
- Bible(theology)
- Peter Lombard’s Sentences(theology)
- Aristotle(philosophy)
边读边explain(commentary):
- Clarify难词
- Explain arguments
- Relate to other texts
- Resolve apparent contradictions
这produce massive commentaries——
如Aquinas on Aristotle
2. Quaestio(问题)
从lectio arise questions(quaestiones)——
Problematic points、contradictions、difficulties
Structured debate format:
提出question(如"Does上帝exist?")
然后systematic treatment
3. Disputatio(辩论)
Public debates——
Regular events in university life:
Ordinary disputations(定期):
- Weekly或biweekly
- On predetermined topics
- 在master supervision下
Quodlibetal disputations(任意辩论):
- Twice a year(Advent和Lent)
- On ANY topic(quodlibet=whatever you like)
- Audience can ask anything
- Test of master’s knowledge和agility
Format:
Respondent(答辩者,usually master)
vs
Opponents(提问者,students或other masters)
Procedure:
- Propose thesis
- Opponents raise objections
- Respondent答辩
- Determinatio(判定):master gives final resolution
Quaestio的结构
我们在Aquinas的Summa中看到这structure:
步骤
1. 提出Question
明确、具体的yes/no question
“Utrum…?"(Whether…?)
例:“Utrum Deus sit?"(Whether上帝exists?)
2. List Objections(异议)
Arguments against the position master将defend
Usually 3-5个
这些不是straw men——
而是最强的opposing arguments!
Format:
“Videtur quod non…"(It seems that not…)
“Praeterea…"(Furthermore…)
必须公平、有力地present反对观点
3. Sed Contra(但相反)
Brief counterargument——
Usually引用authority(Bible、Church Father、Aristotle)
Indicate the position master将take
Format:
“Sed contra est quod…"(But on the contrary…)
4. Respondeo(我回答)
Master’s own reasoned answer——
Core of the article
Not just appeal to authority——
而是philosophical argument
Format:
“Respondeo dicendum quod…"(I answer that…)
这里:
- Define terms
- Distinguish senses
- Present reasoning
- Draw conclusions
5. Replies to Objections
逐一回应earlier objections
Show why they don’t succeed
Format:
“Ad primum ergo dicendum quod…"(To the first, therefore, it must be said that…)
可能:
- Point out fallacy
- Distinguish senses
- Accept部分但qualify
- Show不适用
Example
让我们看一个简化example:
Question:Whether pleasure is the highest good?
Obj. 1:
所有人pursue pleasure——
所以it must be the highest good
Obj. 2:
Pleasure brings happiness——
所以is the good
Sed contra:
Aristotle说virtue is the highest good,不是pleasure
Respondeo:
Pleasure不是highest good,because:
- Pleasure is consequence of活动,不是活动itself
- Different pleasures有different worth(取决于活动)
- Rational activity的pleasure>bodily pleasure
- So highest good=rational activity in accordance with virtue,不是pleasure itself
Ad 1:
所有人pursue happiness,not pleasure per se——
他们mistake pleasure for happiness
Ad 2:
Pleasure accompany happiness——
但不identical to it
为什么这个方法?
Intellectual virtues培养
1. Fairness(公正)
必须present opposing views honestly——
不是caricature them
Train intellectual charity
2. Rigor(严密)
Arguments must be logical、clear
Sloppy thinking被exposed in disputation
3. Completeness(完整)
Consider all sides of issue——
不是just one’s own view
4. Humility(谦卑)
Recognize objections have force——
One’s own view must answer them
Truth>winning argument
Dialectical truth-seeking
Method assumes:
通过对立观点的clash——
真理emerge
Thesis vs antithesis→synthesis
(虽然Hegel远在future!)
不是just rhetoric(说服)——
而是dialectic(寻求真理)
Training minds
Scholastic method=pedagogical tool:
Students learn:
- Critical thinking
- Logical reasoning
- Careful distinction
- Argumentation skills
- Textual analysis
这些skills=valuable beyond theology!
关键techniques
1. Distinctions(区分)
Scholastics famous for making细微distinctions:
例:
“Justice"可以mean:
- Commutative justice(交换正义)
- Distributive justice(分配正义)
- Legal justice(法律正义)
区分clarify思考——
避免confuse different senses
Motto:“Distinguo!"(我区分!)
2. Definitions(定义)
Precise definitions crucial:
用genus(属)+ specific difference(种差)
例:
人=rational(种差)animal(属)
这是Aristotelian method
3. Syllogistic reasoning
Arguments in syllogism form:
Major premise(大前提)
Minor premise(小前提)
Conclusion(结论)
例:
所有人是mortal(大前提)
Socrates是人(小前提)
因此Socrates是mortal(结论)
这是Aristotelian logic
4. Appeal to authorities
虽然emphasize理性——
也respect authorities:
“Auctoritates”(权威):
- Scripture(最高权威in theology)
- Church Fathers(Augustine、Jerome等)
- Aristotle(“The Philosopher”)
- Other philosophers
But:
Authority≠substitute for reasoning——
Authority支持,reason证明
“Argument from authority is the weakest form of argument”
——Aquinas
除了divine revelation in theology!
Scholastic Latin
Specialized technical Latin developed:
特点
1. Precision
Technical terms with exact meanings:
- Essentia、existentia、subsistentia
- Accidens、substantia
- Actus、potentia
- Etc.
2. Abbreviations
因为手抄expensive——
使用abbreviations:
- q.=quaestio
- a.=articulus
- c.=corpus(main body of article)
- ad=reply to objection
3. Formulaic expressions
Standard phrases:
- “Respondeo dicendum quod…”
- “Videtur quod…”
- “Sed contra…”
这create uniform、recognizable structure
批评
Critics(especially Renaissance humanists):
Scholastic Latin=barbarous、ugly——
与classical Ciceronian Latin相比
But defenders:
Technical precision>elegant style——
适合philosophical discourse
Scholasticism的衰落
15-16世纪:
1. Humanism
Renaissance humanists:
Prefer classical sources(Plato、Cicero)直接——
不是through medieval commentaries
Emphasis on rhetoric、style——
Over scholastic logic
Mock scholastics为obsessed with useless subtleties
2. Reformation
Protestants reject scholastic theology——
“Back to Bible!”
Luther attack scholastics:
Too much Aristotle,too little Scripture
3. Scientific Revolution
新科学方法(实验、数学)——
取代Aristotelian natural philosophy
Galileo、Newton不care about scholastic debates
4. 变得僵化
Later scholasticism(15-16世纪)——
Sometimes变成sterile:
- Endless subdivisions
- Debates over trivialities
- Lack of original思想
- Just repeat authorities
Famous mock question:
“How many angels can dance on the head of a pin?”
(Actually,scholastics可能没真正debate这个——
但symbolize perceived absurdity)
Neo-Scholasticism复兴
19世纪:
Catholic Church revive Thomism:
教宗Leo XIII’s encyclical Aeterni Patris(1879):
Declare Aquinas的philosophy=official Catholic philosophy
Neo-scholasticism:
- Return to Aquinas、Scholastic method
- Engage with modern philosophy
- Thomistic institutes、journals
仍然有influence in Catholic universities today
Scholastic method vs其他traditions
vs希腊哲学
苏格拉底method:
- Dialogue、questioning
- Irony、maieutics
- Informal
Scholastic method:
- Formal disputations
- Structured quaestio
- Technical
但both:dialectical、seek truth through对话
vs中国哲学
中国tradition:
- Less systematic
- Aphoristic(《论语》、《道德经》)
- 注重实践智慧
Scholastic:
- Highly systematic
- Logical argumentation
- Theoretical rigor
但both:尊重earlier传统、commentary tradition
vs Islamic Kalam
Kalam(伊斯兰神学):
- Dialectical method
- Disputation
- Rational theology
Similar to scholasticism!
都influenced by Aristotle——
都develop technical philosophical theology
现代意义
1. Critical thinking training
Scholastic method teach:
考虑多方观点——
公平represent反对者——
用reason,不是rhetoric
这些skills=永恒relevant
2. Structured argumentation
Quaestio format=model:
- 明确thesis
- 预见objections
- Respond systematically
- 区分concepts
适用于:
- Academic papers
- Legal briefs
- Policy debates
3. Intellectual humility
认真对待objections——
Acknowledge opposing views的strength
不是strawman arguments
4. 对话传统
Philosophy as conversation——
Across generations:
Aristotle→Avicenna→Aquinas→Scotus→我们
不是starting from scratch——
而是building on tradition
批评与限制
1. Authority的过度依赖?
虽然emphasize理性——
Still huge respect for Aristotle、Augustine等
Sometimes inhibit original思考?
2. 忽视经验?
Emphasis on logical analysis——
Sometimes at expense of empirical observation
(虽然Albertus是exception!)
3. 过度subtlety?
Distinctions upon distinctions——
可能obscure而不是clarify
“How many angels…”
4. Narrow canon
Mainly西方sources(Aristotle、Augustine)
少from其他traditions(虽然有Arabic influence)
实践
1. 采用quaestio format
在think through difficult question时:
Try structuring思维:
- 明确question
- List strongest objections to your view
- State your position
- Explain reasoning
- Answer each objection
这is discipline!
2. Steel man,不是straw man
Represent opposing views:
最强、最公平version——
不是weakest、distorted version
这是scholastic fairness
3. Make distinctions
当argument不清楚时——
Often因为混淆different senses
学习区分:
“In what sense?”
“Distinguish X1 from X2”
4. Seek truth,不是victory
Debate的目的不是"win”——
而是discover truth
如果对手有good point——
Acknowledge it!
Revise your view if necessary
经院方法——
在中世纪universities——
形成几代思想家——
教他们:
如何think clearly——
如何argue rigorously——
如何seek truth humbly
虽然某些aspects过时——
Core virtues remain:
Clarity、
Rigor、
Fairness、
Systematic thinking
这些是philosophical excellence的marks——
在任何时代
“Distinguo!”
(我区分!)
这是scholastic精神——
仍然教我们:
Think carefully、
Distinguish clearly、
Argue fairly
在我们own寻求真理的journey中