The Subtle Doctor

John Duns Scotus(约1266-1308)

绰号:“Doctor Subtilis”(精微博士)

为什么"精微"?

他的arguments=extremely nuanced、complex、technical——

Distinctions upon distinctions——

Subtle reasoning that requires careful attention

他是Franciscan(方济各会)——

与Dominican的Aquinas形成对比

两者的争论shape后期scholasticism

生平(充满争议)

Details of his life=surprisingly unclear——

虽然是major philosopher!

基本事实

约1266:生于Scotland(Duns,故名Duns Scotus)

1291:ordained priest

教学于:

  • Oxford(1300-1302)
  • Paris(1302-1303,被驱逐因政治)
  • Oxford again(1303-1304)
  • Paris again(1304-1307)
  • Cologne(1307-1308)

1308:去世于Cologne,才约42岁

惊人的是:

这么短的生命——

产出massive、influential著作!

Legend of premature burial

Medieval传说:

Scotus was buried alive——

后来打开coffin——

发现scratch marks inside lid!

他其实没死,只是coma——

在coffin中醒来but无法escape

This is almost certainly false——

但shows他的fame(产生legends)

主要著作

1. Ordinatio(《巴黎演讲录》)

他的Commentary on Sentences(Peter Lombard)——

Main systematic work

Covers theology和philosophy

2. Reportata Parisiensia

Students’ notes from Paris lectures

3. Quodlibetal Questions

Disputed questions on various topics

4. Philosophical works

Questions on Aristotle

Logic treatises

所有著作=dense、technical——

需要专业training to fully understand

核心哲学:个体性问题

Scotus最famous contribution:

Theory of individuation(个体化理论)

问题

什么makes individual things individual?

例:

Socrates和Plato——

Both是humans(same essence)——

但是different individuals

什么constitute their individuality?

Aquinas的答案

Matter(质料)individuates——

Form(形式)=universal

“Humanity”(人性)=universal form——

This particular matter→this particular human

所以:

Socrates=humanity + this hunk of matter

Plato=humanity + that hunk of matter

Scotus的批评

这不够!

问题:

1. Angels没有matter

如果matter individuates——

那么each angel=different species?

(因为no matter to differentiate individuals of same species)

Scotus:absurd——

Can have multiple angels of same species

2. Matter本身需要individuation

“This matter"已经是individual——

什么make it"this"而不是"that”?

又需要further principle——

Infinite regress?

3. Resurrection问题

Christian belief:resurrection of body

但matter changes completely over lifetime——

Cells replaced

如果matter individuates——

Resurrected body=same person吗?

Scotus:需要more stable individuation principle

Haecceity(“这性”)

Scotus的solution:

Haecceitas(from Latin “haec”=this)

“Thisness”——

个体性本身as positive principle

不是仅仅privation

Individuality不只是:

“Not other things”(否定)

而是positive feature:

“Being THIS”(肯定)

例:

Socrates的haecceity=

The positive feature that makes him Socrates——

不是just"not-Plato"

而是"Socrates-ness"

Irreducible

Haecceity不能reduce to:

  • Matter(如Aquinas)
  • Accidents(properties可改变)
  • Collection of universals

是ultimate、irreducible principle

Just as:

Essence(本质)回答"What is it?"

Haecceity回答"Which one is it?"

形式区分

Scotus introduce:

Formal distinction(形式区分)——

Between essence和haecceity:

不是real distinction(像two separate things)

不是merely conceptual(只在思维中)

而是formal:

两个aspects in same thing——

可以conceptually distinguished——

虽然实际inseparable

类似:

在triangle中:

“Three-sidedness"和"having angles sum to 180°"——

Formally distinct但不separable

Univocity of Being

另一个revolutionary doctrine:

“Being”(存在)是univocal(单义的)

Aquinas的analogy

回顾:

Aquinas说"being"是analogical:

“上帝exists"和"creature exists”——

“Exists"不是same meaning(univocal)——

也不是completely different(equivocal)——

而是analogical(related meanings)

Scotus的反对

如果"being"不是univocal——

我们根本不能talk about上帝和creatures用same concept!

推理会失效:

“上帝is a being”

“Creatures are beings”

“Therefore,上帝and creatures have something in common”

如果"being"是analogical——

This reasoning=fallacy(equivocation)!

Scotus:

必须有univocal concept of being——

Applying to both上帝和creatures

(虽然方式不同)

最抽象的概念

“Being”=most abstract concept——

就是:

“Not-nothing”(不是无)

这concept applies to:

  • 上帝(infinite being)
  • Creatures(finite beings)
  • Substances
  • Accidents
  • Everything that exists

Univocally——

虽然modes不同:

上帝=necessary、infinite、simple

Creatures=contingent、finite、composite

但基本concept"being”=same

意义

这为metaphysics奠定foundation:

如果no univocal concept——

No共同ground for discourse about上帝和world

Scotus:

理性可以有certain knowledge about上帝——

通过univocal concepts

这比Aquinas更optimistic about metaphysics

Primacy of Will

Scotus强调will(意志)over intellect(理智)

Aquinas:Intellect优先

Aquinas(following Aristotle):

Intellect is highest faculty——

Will follows intellect(“nihil volitum nisi praecognitum”——

Nothing willed unless first known)

上帝的essence=knowing(理智)

Beatific vision=intellectual contemplation

Scotus:Will优先

Will更fundamental than intellect:

1. Freedom

Will=truly free——

不完全determined by intellect’s judgment

即使intellect shows X是best——

Will可以choose Y

这是radical freedom

2. Love vs Knowledge

Highest act不是knowing上帝——

而是loving上帝(will的act)

Beatific vision主要是love,不是just知识

3. 上帝的will

上帝create world不是因necessity(intellect seeing必须)——

而是free choice(will)

上帝could have created differently——

Or not created at all

4. Moral law

某些moral laws不是absolute necessary——

而是depend on上帝’s will:

例:

“Honor your parents”(第五诫)——

上帝could have commanded otherwise

(虽然certain basics like"love上帝”=necessary)

这是voluntarism(意志论)——

vs Aquinas的intellectualism(理智论)

Immaculate Conception

Scotus’s influential theological position:

Mary was conceived without original sin

问题

Christian doctrine:

All humans inherit original sin from Adam——

Only Christ=without sin

但Mary=mother of Christ——

Was she sinless from conception?

Debate

Dominicans(including Aquinas):

No,Mary conceived with sin——

但later purified before Christ’s conception

Reason:

如果no sin→no need for Christ’s redemption

Franciscans(including Scotus):

Yes,Mary conceived without sin——

Through预先的redemption by Christ

上帝可以apply Christ’s merits retroactively

Scotus的argument

“Potuit,decuit,ergo fecit”

(上帝could do it,it was fitting,therefore上帝did it)

上帝有power preserve Mary from sin——

It’s fitting(appropriate)给Christ’s mother这honor——

因此上帝did it

This position eventually became Catholic dogma(1854)——

Largely因为Scotus的influence!

Scotus vs Aquinas总结

两位scholasticism的giants——

但重要differences:

AquinasScotus
DominicanFranciscan
Intellect>WillWill>Intellect
Analogy of beingUnivocity of being
Matter individuatesHaecceity individuates
More AristotelianMore Augustine/Platonic(某些方面)
Optimistic about reasonMore emphasis on will、freedom
Essence-existence distinctionFormal distinctions

但both:

  • Sophisticated scholastics
  • Reconcile philosophy和theology
  • Massive influence

“Dunce"的词源

Ironic fact:

English word"dunce”(笨蛋)——

来自Duns Scotus!

为什么?

16-17世纪:

Renaissance humanists和Reformers——

Attack scholasticism as useless subtlety——

Scotus’s followers(“Dunsmen"或"Dunces”)——

被mock为obsessed with pointless distinctions

“Duns”→“dunce”=stupid person

巨大的讽刺:

One of history’s greatest minds——

Name becomes synonym for stupidity!

但这reflects:

Changing intellectual fashions——

不是Scotus的real ability

影响

在scholasticism中

Scotist school与Thomist school竞争——

Centuries of debates

Franciscans generally follow Scotus——

Dominicans follow Aquinas

在后世哲学中

Leibniz:

Influenced by Scotus的formal distinctions、possible worlds

Kant:

可能间接influenced by Scotus’s critique of Aquinas

现代modal logic:

Scotus’s思考about necessity、possibility、individuation

Haecceity in现代哲学

“Thisness"概念resurface in:

20世纪metaphysics:

  • Individuation问题
  • Identity across time
  • Possible worlds(transworld identity)

诗人Gerard Manley Hopkins:

Coined"inscape”——

灵感from Scotus’s haecceity!

“Each mortal thing…Deals out that being indoors each one dwells; Selves—goes itself; myself it speaks and spells”

现代意义

1. 个体的独特性

Scotus remind:

每个individual有irreducible uniqueness——

不只是universal properties的bundle

在标准化、大众文化时代——

这is important:

你不只是type的instance——

你有your own haecceity

2. 意志的自由

Scotus’s强调will——

Resonates with modern emphasis on:

  • Autonomy
  • Free choice
  • Existential freedom

我们不只是理性计算machines——

我们有genuine freedom to choose

3. Univocity and discourse

Scotus’s argument for univocal being——

类似现代concern:

如何have meaningful discourse——

Across different frameworks?

需要some共同concepts

4. Respect for particularity

每个事物’s haecceity=unique——

应该respected,不是just subsumed under universals

在ecology、ethics:

尊重individual beings——

不只是species或categories

实践

1. 你的haecceity

什么makes you YOU?

不只是:

  • Your DNA(matter)
  • Your properties(tall、smart、kind)
  • Your roles(student、parent、worker)

而是:

The irreducible"you-ness"——

Your unique个体性

Reflect on this

2. Willing vs willing

在decisions中:

Distinguish:

  • What intellect says is best
  • What you actually will

Sometimes they differ——

这是your freedom

用它responsibly

3. 尊重individuals

每个person、being有unique haecceity——

不只是category member(“人”、“动物”)

This grounds:

  • Respect for dignity
  • Attention to particularity
  • Against reduction to type

4. Subtle distinctions

Scotus’s"subtlety"=

Care for nuance、distinctions

在粗糙binary思维时代——

练习subtle discrimination:

不是just"好/坏"、“对/错”——

而是细微differences

“精微博士”——

在42年短暂生命中——

创造incredibly complex、

Nuanced philosophical system

他的haecceity——

His unique个体性——

仍然resound——

在每个思考:

“什么makes this THIS?”

“意志如何自由?”

“个体如何irreducible?”

的人心中

虽然"dunce"曾被用来mock他——

Scotus remains——

One of philosophy’s

Subtlest、

Most original

Minds