道德的基础在哪里?

Fundamental ethical question:

什么makes action对或错?

可能answers:

  1. 上帝的命令(Divine Command)

    • 对=上帝commands
    • 错=上帝forbids
  2. 社会convention(Conventionalism)

    • 对=社会approves
    • 错=社会condemns
  3. 个人preference(Subjectivism)

    • 对=我like
    • 错=我dislike
  4. 后果(Consequentialism)

    • 对=produces good consequences
    • 错=produces bad consequences

Aquinas’s answer:Natural Law(自然法)

道德基于:

  • Human nature(人性)
  • Reason(理性)
  • Natural inclinations(自然倾向)

不是arbitrary(任意的)——

而是based on reality of what we are

Natural Law Theory

自然法(Lex Naturalis)=

Moral law人can discover通过reason——

Based on understanding人的nature和good

不需要revelation(启示)——

虽然revelation confirms和deepens it

法的层级

Aquinas区分four kinds of law:

1. Eternal Law(永恒法)

上帝’s plan for all creation——

Divine reason governing universe

包含everything:

  • Physical laws(gravity、etc.)
  • Moral laws
  • Divine providence

我们不能完全know eternal law——

只能glimpse its manifestations

2. Natural Law(自然法)

Eternal law as known by human reason——

我们通过理性participate in上帝’s wisdom

Rational creatures能discern:

  • 什么是good for us
  • 什么是evil to avoid

这是道德law written in hearts(Romans 2:15)

3. Human Law(人定法)

Laws made by human authorities——

应该based on和derived from natural law

例:

Natural law:“不可杀人”

Human law:“谋杀punishment=life imprisonment”

详细规定和enforcement

Valid human law=

Application of natural law to specific conditions

Invalid human law(unjust law)=

Contradicts natural law——

No真正binding power

4. Divine Law(神圣法)

直接由上帝revealed(Ten Commandments、Scripture)

为什么需要,如果已有natural law?

因为:

  • Human reason can err(错误)
  • Some truths beyond pure reason(如Trinity)
  • Providesdefiniteness和clarity
  • Guides toward supernatural end(天堂)

Natural Law的特点

1. Universal(普遍)

适用于所有人——

不限于particular culture或time

因为based on human nature——

人性universal

2. Immutable(不变)

Core principles不change——

因为human nature本质不change

(虽然application可以vary in circumstances)

3. Knowable by reason(理性可知)

不需要:

  • Special revelation
  • Religious faith
  • Expert knowledge

任何rational person can discern basic moral truths

4. Objective(客观)

不是subjective opinion——

Based on reality of human nature and good

First Principle of Natural Law

Aquinas《神学大全》I-II, Q. 94, Art. 2:

First and most fundamental principle of natural law:

“Good is to be done and pursued, and evil is to be avoided”

“善应当被做和追求,恶应当被避免”

这是self-evident(自明的)——

就像"avoid contradictions"是logic的first principle

不能被证明(因为是first)——

但任何道德reasoning presuppose it

似乎太vague?

这principle seems不具体——

“做好事,避免坏事”——

几乎tautology(同义反复)!

但Aquinas的point:

这是starting point——

更specific precepts derived from it——

Through understanding what is"good" for humans

Basic Human Goods

如何知道什么是"good"for humans?

看human nature和natural inclinations:

我们naturally incline toward certain goods——

这些reveal what perfects our nature

Aquinas identifies several basic inclinations:

1. 自我保存(Self-Preservation)

我们naturally desire:

  • Continue existing
  • Protect our life
  • Health

Natural law precepts:

  • 不可自杀
  • 不可谋杀
  • 应当care for health

这shared with所有living beings

2. 繁衍与养育(Procreation & Child-rearing)

Natural inclination to:

  • Sexual union
  • Have children
  • Educate offspring

Natural law precepts:

  • Marriage
  • Family care
  • 父母responsibilities

这shared with animals

3. 真理的认识(Knowledge of Truth)

Humans specifically incline to:

  • Know truth
  • Understand reality
  • Know about上帝

Natural law precepts:

  • 避免ignorance
  • 追求education
  • 不可lie(obscures truth)
  • Worship上帝

这是specifically human

4. 社会生活(Social Life)

Humans naturally social(Aristotle:“人是political animal”)

Natural inclination to:

  • Live in community
  • Cooperate
  • Friendship

Natural law precepts:

  • Justice(give each their due)
  • 避免harm others
  • 遵守agreements(contracts)
  • Contribute to common good

这也specifically human(虽然一些动物有social structures)

How Natural Law Works

Process:

1. Observe human nature和inclinations

什么是humans naturally seek?

2. Identify basic goods

这些inclinations point to真正的goods for humans

3. Derive precepts(规则)

Actions promoting these goods=对

Actions harming these goods=错

例子:

Observation:人naturally incline to know truth

Good:knowledge、truth

Precept:

  • Seek truth
  • Avoid willful ignorance
  • Don’t lie

Reasoning:

Lying=

  • 违反natural inclination to truth
  • Harms知识的传播
  • Undermines trust(social good)
  • 所以=wrong by natural law

Primary vs Secondary Precepts

Aquinas区分:

Primary Precepts(首要规则)

最general、fundamental principles——

直接从first principle derived:

  • 保护life
  • 繁衍species
  • 追求truth
  • 生活in society

这些:

  • Universal(无例外)
  • Immutable(永恒)
  • Self-evident to anyone with reason

Secondary Precepts(次要规则)

More specific applications——

从primary precepts derived:

  • 不可steal(from社会性和justice)
  • 履行promises(from社会性和truth)
  • 不可adultery(from marriage和procreation)

这些:

  • Generally hold
  • 但可能有exceptions in特殊情况
  • 需要prudence(实践智慧)to apply

例:

Primary:preserve life

Secondary:don’t kill

但in self-defense——

可能允许kill aggressor(双果原则,后面讲)

Virtues and Natural Law

遵守natural law=cultivate virtues

Virtues(德性)=stable dispositions to act according to reason

Cardinal virtues(枢德):

1. Prudence(明智,phronesis)

实践智慧——

知道如何apply general principles to particular situations

Needed to discern:

  • 具体情况中what’s right
  • How to achieve good
  • When exceptions apply

这是其他virtues的guide

2. Justice(正义)

Give each their due——

尊重others的rights和dignity

Related to social good

3. Fortitude(坚忍)

勇气面对difficulties和dangers——

In pursuit of good

克服fear、pain、obstacles

4. Temperance(节制)

Moderate desires和pleasures——

特别bodily pleasures(食物、性)

Follow reason,不是just appetite

这四个virtues

+三个theological virtues(Faith、Hope、Charity)

=完整的virtuous life

Double Effect Principle

关键tool for应用natural law:

当action有both good和bad effects——

在什么条件下permissible?

Four Conditions

1. The act itself must be good或至少neutral

不能do intrinsically evil act

2. Good effect must be intended

不能intend bad effect

(可能foresee,但not intend)

3. Good effect不是through bad effect

好结果不能由坏结果caused

4. Proportionate reason

Good effect足够重要to justify允许bad effect

例子:自卫

Scenario:

Someone攻击你——

你defend yourself——

Aggressor被杀

Analysis:

1. Act=self-defense(good/neutral,not murder)

2. Intention=protect your life(not kill)

3. 你的safety不是通过aggressor’s death(而是通过stopping attack)

4. Proportionate:你的life=aggressor’s(所以可以)

Conclusion:Permissible by natural law

例子:恐怖轰炸vs战术轰炸

Scenario 1(terror bombing):

轰炸civilians to demoralize enemy

Analysis:

  • Intention=kill civilians(violates条件2)
  • 违反natural law

Scenario 2(tactical bombing):

轰炸军事target——

但知道会有civilian casualties

Analysis:

  • Act=destroy军事target(legitimate)
  • Intention=weaken enemy military(good)
  • Foresee but not intend civilian deaths
  • If proportionate(minimize casualties)→可能permissible

这是subtle but重要distinction

批评与挑战

1. “Is” to “Ought” problem

Hume(后面会讲)的challenge:

不能从"是"(what is)推出"应该"(what ought)

Natural law似乎do this:

“人naturally incline to X”(is)

→“人应该pursue X”(ought)

这valid吗?

Aquinas可能回应:

不是simple “is→ought”——

而是:“人的telos(目的)=X”→“应该pursue X”

Teleology(目的论)bridges the gap

2. 多元的人性观?

Different cultures have different views of"human nature"——

哪个是"true"人性?

Natural law pretend universal——

But actually reflects particular cultural assumptions?

例:

性别角色、家庭结构、性道德——

Vary greatly across cultures

Aquinas可能说:

Core precepts(life、truth、society)=universal——

Secondary applications=can vary

3. 进化论挑战

Human nature=product of evolution——

Not designed with purpose——

Random mutation + natural selection

So:

“Natural inclinations”=evolutionary adaptations——

不是moral guides

例:

Males可能naturally incline to多伴侣——

但不make it morally right

Aquinas可能回应:

即使nature evolved——

仍然有structure和telos(功能)——

心脏的function=pump blood(无论如何evolve)

性的function=procreation + union

4. 同性关系

经典natural law argue:

性行为should be open to procreation——

所以同性行为=违反natural law

Critics:

这too narrow view of性的goods——

也包括love、intimacy、mutual support——

同性couples can have这些

Debate continues:

如何理解"natural"——

Biological function?

还是broader human flourishing?

Natural Law vs Other Theories

vs Divine Command Theory

Divine Command:对=上帝commands

Natural Law:对=rational、合human nature(上帝创造的nature)

区别:

Divine Command=pure will of上帝(could be arbitrary)

Natural Law=基于上帝’s wisdom体现in nature(reasonable)

Euthyphro问题:

“Does上帝command X因为X is good——

还是X is good因为上帝commands it?”

Natural Law选第一个:

上帝commands X因为X=good(rational、合nature)

vs Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism:对=maximizes happiness/utility

Natural Law:对=合human nature和basic goods

区别:

Utilitarianism=consequentialist(看结果)

Natural Law=deontological elements(certain acts wrong无论后果)

例:

Torture一个innocent person to save many——

Utilitarianism可能说yes(greater good)

Natural Law说no(violates dignity、justice)

vs Kantian Ethics

Kant(后面会讲):对=能被universalized,尊重persons as ends

Natural Law:对=合nature、promote human goods

Similarities:

  • Both objectivist
  • Both emphasize reason
  • Both have universal principles

Differences:

  • Kant=pure reason(autonomous)
  • Aquinas=reason illuminated by nature(created by上帝)
  • Kant避免teleology
  • Aquinas embrace teleology

vs Confucian Ethics

Similarities:

  • Both based on human nature
  • Both emphasize virtues
  • Both see社会性为essential

Differences:

  • 儒家focus on relationships、roles
  • Natural law focus on individual goods和rights(more)
  • 儒家more particularist(context)
  • Natural law more universalist(principles)

现代应用

1. Human Rights

Modern human rights discourse——

有roots in natural law tradition:

“Inalienable rights”=

基于human nature——

不是granted by government

UN Universal Declaration(1948):

Echoes natural law:

  • 人inherently有dignity
  • Rights不depend on nation/culture
  • Universal and inalienable

2. Bioethics

Natural law applied to:

Abortion:

从conception,有human life with natural right to exist

Euthanasia:

生命是基本good——

直接kill=违反natural law

Contraception:

(争议)性的natural purpose包括procreation——

Artificially block=violate?

这些positions有supporters和critics

3. Environmental Ethics

Natural law can ground environmental protection:

自然有inherent value——

我们有duty to respect creation

不只是for human use——

但also stewardship responsibility

4. Social Justice

Natural law support:

  • Common good优先于mere individual preference
  • 经济justice(分配according to need和contribution)
  • Political participation(基于social nature)

实践意义

1. 反思你的"自然"倾向

什么是你naturally incline toward?

这些都是goods吗?

还是有些需要moderation?

例:

  • 食物(good,but需temperance)
  • 知识(good,应cultivate)
  • 权力(可疑,可能not真正的good)

2. 区分真假goods

Not一切我们desire=真的good for us

Natural law要求:

用reason examine desires——

哪些truly fulfill human nature?

哪些是distorted、addictive、harmful?

3. Universal principles in particular situations

General principles需要prudence to apply

在你的具体situations:

  • 如何honor life?
  • 如何pursue truth?
  • 如何contribute to community?

不是just follow rules mechanically——

而是wise application

4. 基于nature的道德对话

在diverse society——

Natural law offer common ground:

诉诸shared human nature——

不是particular religious beliefs

基于reason的对话——

Accessible to all

自然法——

从nature到norm——

从is到ought——

从reason到right

Aquinas认为:

道德不是arbitrary——

而是written in reality本身——

在human nature、

在我们的inclinations、

在理性的light中

可被discover——

通过任何人——

Who uses reason honestly

这是optimistic vision:

道德truth=accessible——

基于我们shared humanity

你agree吗?

还是道德更subjective、

More cultural、

Less grounded in"nature"?

这debate continues——

But Aquinas’s voice——

Remains powerful、

Influential、

在contemporary ethics中