最深刻的区分
在所有metaphysical distinctions中——
可能没有比这更fundamental的:
Essence(本质)vs Existence(存在)
Aquinas从Avicenna那里receive这distinction——
但发展成他自己的sophisticated theory——
成为他metaphysics的cornerstone。
这听起来abstract——
但implications深远:
- 如何理解reality的structure
- 上帝和creatures的difference
- 为什么有something而不是nothing
What is Essence?
Essence(essentia)=
What a thing is(一个事物"是什么")
The “what-ness”(quidditas)of a thing
也叫nature(本性)
Examples:
人的essence=rational animal(理性动物)
- This is what makes人是人
- 不是particular features(高矮、肤色等)
- 而是defining characteristics
Triangle的essence=three-sided figure
Gold的essence=atomic number 79
Essence=回答question “What is it?”
Essence的特点
1. Abstractable(可抽象)
Can be conceived离开particular instances:
- “人性”(humanity)作为universal
- Can think about it不reference specific人
2. Definable(可定义)
Can be expressed in definition
通过genus(属)+ specific difference(种差):
- 人=动物(genus)+ 理性(difference)
3. Shared(可共享)
同一essence can be in多个individuals:
- Socrates和Plato=同样的human essence
- Though different individuals
4. Neutral to existence
Essence本身不tell us whether thing exists:
我can know unicorn的essence(what it would be)
Without knowing whether unicorns exist
What is Existence?
Existence(esse)=
That a thing is(一个事物"存在")
The “that-ness” or actuality of being
Examples:
This specific human exists(活着)
Socrates existed(过去存在)
Unicorns don’t exist(不存在)
Existence=回答question “Does it exist?”
Existence的特点
1. Act(现实、活动)
Aquinas:existence是actuality——
最根本的actuality——
使一切其他actualities possible
Essence=potency(潜能)
Existence=act that actualizes essence
2. Not part of essence
Existence不是essence的component——
不像"rational"是human essence的part
而是added to essence——
使essence be real
3. 不能被定义
Existence本身无法define——
因为definition=give essence——
但existence不是essence!
只能be grasped直接(immediately)
4. 个别化
Existence ties essence to particularity:
“Human”(essence)=universal
“This existing human”=particular
本质与存在的区分
Aquinas的核心claim:
In all created beings——
Essence和existence是really distinct(实在区分)
不同于merely conceptual distinction(概念区分)
Real distinction
不只是我们思维中的区分——
而是reality本身的区分:
Essence和existence=两个principles——
Two components of created beings
就像matter和form=两个principles
Evidence:
1. Separability in thought
我can conceive essence without existence:
知道"人是什么"(essence)
不knowing是否某particular人exists
2. Causal explanation
为什么这essence存在?
不是从essence本身——
(unicorn的essence不cause它exist)
而是from external cause
3. Contingency
Created beings可能不存在——
它们的essence不necessitate existence
所以existence=added,not inherent
Composition(组合)
Created beings=composite of:
Essence(潜能)+ Existence(现实)
就像:
Matter(潜能)+ Form(现实)= substance
但essence-existence composition更fundamental:
Even pure forms(angels)有这composition
只有上帝no composition
上帝:Essence IS Existence
上帝uniquely different:
在上帝,essence=existence
上帝的本质就是存在本身
(Ipsum Esse Subsistens=Subsistent Being Itself)
意义
1. Necessary existence
上帝不是might-not-exist——
上帝’s very nature=to exist
Impossibility of non-existence
2. No composition
上帝absolutely simple——
No parts:
- No essence + existence
- No matter + form
- No accidents + substance
Pure actuality(纯现实)——
No potentiality at all
3. Self-explanatory
上帝’s existence不需要external cause——
因为existence=上帝’s very essence
上帝解释自己
4. Unlimited
Existence本身=no limits——
Limits来自essence(this kind of being,not that)
上帝=unlimited existence——
所以infinite in perfection
唯一性
只能有one being whose essence=existence:
因为:
如果有two such beings——
什么区分它们?
不能是essence(same=existence itself)
不能是accidents(no accidents in pure being)
所以只能有one上帝
Existence as Perfection
Existence本身=最fundamental perfection
为什么?
Existence使一切perfections actual
一个东西’s goodness、beauty、truth——
All depend on its existing:
A non-existent good=no good at all
所以existence=condition for一切perfections
Degrees of existence?
Aquinas有时speak of “more"或"less” being:
不是说some things更exist than others——
(你either exist or don’t)
而是:
Some beings更fully actualize existence——
More perfections、more actuality、less limitation
Hierarchy of being:
- 上帝:pure existence,no limits
- Angels:spiritual substances,limited by essence
- Humans:rational animals,matter + spirit
- Animals:sensitive soul
- Plants:vegetative soul
- Inanimate:just matter + form
Higher in hierarchy=
More actuality,less potentiality——
More perfectly participate in existence
Participation in Being
Created beings don’t “have” existence inherently——
They participate in existence——
Received from上帝
Analogy:
像objects don’t have light inherently——
They reflect light from sun
Similarly:
Creatures don’t have being inherently——
They receive being from上帝(Source of Being)
This is participation(分有):
上帝=Being Itself
Creatures=beings by participation
为什么这么重要?
1. 解释contingency
为什么有东西而不是nothing?
因为:
Essence alone不足以exist——
Needs existence added——
This requires Cause——
Ultimately上帝(whose essence=existence)
这是cosmological argument的deep foundation
2. 上帝的独特性
Essence-existence distinction——
Marks absolute difference between:
- 上帝(essence IS existence)
- Everything else(essence RECEIVES existence)
不是quantitative difference(bigger、more powerful)——
而是qualitative、categorical difference
上帝不是biggest creature——
而是different in kind(Being Itself)
3. Analogy of being
当我们说:
“上帝exists"和"我exist”——
“Exists"不是univocal(同一意义)——
因为:
- 上帝’s existence=uncreated、necessary、infinite
- 我的existence=created、contingent、finite
但also不是equivocal(完全不同意义)——
因为两者都是真的existence
而是analogical(类比):
Related meanings——
上帝=existence primarily、perfectly
Creatures=existence derivatively、imperfectly
批评与争议
1. 是实在区分吗?
Critics(如Scotus,later会讲)argue:
Essence和existence不是real distinction——
只是conceptual(概念上的)
理由:
你不能separate them in reality——
Every actual essence has existence
Aquinas回应:
Real distinction不mean physical separability——
而是two real principles in composition
2. Existence可以是property吗?
Kant later argue(我们会讲):
Existence不是predicate/property——
“X exists”≠adding property to X——
只是saying X is instantiated
这challenge Aquinas’s treatment of existence as act?
Defenders说:
Aquinas’s esse不同于modern “existence” concept——
Esse=actuality,not predicate
3. 无限regress?**
如果created beings need上帝for existence——
Does上帝need something for existence?
Aquinas:
No,因为上帝’s essence=existence——
Self-explanatory,no external cause needed
But critic:isn’t this special pleading?
4. 过于抽象?
这distinction so abstract——
有real explanatory power吗?
还是只是conceptual gymnastics?
Defenders:
Addresses fundamental questions——
Contingency、necessity、causation——
提供deep framework for understanding reality
与其他tradition比较
vs Plato
Plato:
Forms(理念)=true reality
Particulars=imperfect copies
Essence>existence
Aquinas:
Existence=更fundamental than essence
Actual existing things=more real than abstract essences
这是Aristotelian turn:
Primacy of existence over abstract forms
vs Avicenna
Avicenna首先clear提出essence-existence distinction
Aquinas采纳——
但发展differently:
Avicenna:
Existence=accident added to essence
Aquinas:
Existence≠accident——
是substance的act(not accident)
Existence更intimately united to essence
vs Averroes
Averroes倾向:
Essence和existence=same in reality
只是conceptually different
Aquinas disagree:
Real distinction,not just conceptual
vs Eastern philosophy
佛教:
No fixed essences(无我)
一切=process,not substances with essences
Aquinas:
Substances have stable essences
Though existence=dynamic act
道家:
道=beyond essence和existence categories
不可名、不可分
Aquinas:
上帝=Being Itself——
仍可用analogical language discuss
现代relevance
1. Why is there something?
Fundamental question of metaphysics
Aquinas’s answer:
Essence alone不足——
需要existence(ultimately from上帝)
Modern physics can explain:
How universe developed——
但不能explain:
为什么有existence at all——
为什么laws of nature而不是nothing
Aquinas’s distinction提醒:
Existence itself需要解释
2. Existentialism呼应
Sartre:“Existence precedes essence”
人先exist,然后create essence(through choices)
这flip Aquinas——
但acknowledge两者的distinction!
Aquinas would say:
对creatures,essence comes first(logically)——
但existence actualizes it
3. Modal logic
现代modal logic区分:
- Necessary vs contingent being
- Possible vs actual worlds
Aquinas’s distinction的formal analogue:
Essence=defines what’s possible
Existence=actualizes in this world
4. Scientific realism
科学描述essences(natures、properties)——
但预设existence of things with those natures
Aquinas reminds:
Knowing what something is≠
Knowing that it is
Both questions matter
实践意义
1. Contingency awareness
你的existence不是necessary——
You might not have been
这cultivate:
- Gratitude(for being)
- Humility(不是self-made)
- Wonder(why me?why anything?)
2. 区分本质与存在在思考中
When evaluating ideas、beliefs、possibilities:
问两个questions:
What would it be?(essence)
- Clarify the concept
- Define terms
Does it exist?(existence)
- Empirical evidence
- Reality check
不要混淆:
Clear concept≠established existence
(UFOs、conspiracy theories、theoretical entities)
3. 价值的源头
什么gives things value?
Aquinas suggest:
Existence itself=fundamental good
其他goods=perfections added to existence
所以:
Being alive=basic good
其他achievements=additional perfections
这grounds ethics in ontology(存在论)
4. 寻找source of being
If your existence不是self-explanatory——
它comes from where?
Parents?(但它们也contingent)
Universe?(also contingent)
Ultimately?
Aquinas would point to:
Being Itself——
Source of all participated being
从essence到existence——
From potency到act——
From concept到reality——
This distinction runs deep
Aquinas用它structure整个metaphysics:
解释:
- Contingency和necessity
- Creation和creatures
- 上帝和world
- Possibility和actuality
你的essence=你是什么
(Human,rational animal)
你的existence=你在
(Actually living,here,now)
前者不guarantee后者——
后者is gift,
Ultimately from
Being Itself。