两个世界的巨人

Moses Maimonides(摩西·迈蒙尼德,1138-1204)

Hebrew name:Moshe ben Maimon

Arabic name:Musa ibn Maymun

犹太传统中最伟大的哲学家和神学家——

也是中世纪最influential的思想家之一。

他的影响跨越:

  • 犹太教(rabbinic authority)
  • 伊斯兰世界(court physician、philosopher)
  • 基督教scholasticism(Thomas Aquinas引用他)

著名说法:

“From Moses to Moses, there was none like Moses”

“从摩西(先知)到摩西(迈蒙尼德),没有人像摩西”

生平:流亡中的学者

早年

出生于Córdoba(科尔多瓦,西班牙)——

犹太社区flourishing under Muslim rule。

父亲是rabbinic scholar——

迈蒙尼德从小学习:

  • Torah(律法书)
  • Talmud(塔木德)
  • Jewish law
  • Philosophy(Aristotle通过Arabic)
  • Science、medicine

流亡

1148:Almohads(强硬伊斯兰政权)占领Córdoba——

强制conversion(改信)or exile。

迈蒙尼德家庭流亡——

颠沛流离于Andalusia、North Africa。

最终settle in Fustat(Egypt,开罗附近)。

Cairo时期

成为:

  • Court physician to Saladin’s vizier
  • Leader of Jewish community
  • Prolific writer

同时maintain:

  • Medical practice(extremely busy)
  • Rabbinic duties
  • Philosophical writing

Famous letter describe他的exhausting schedule:

早上在court看病人——

下午骑马回家——

无数病人等待——

晚上teaching、writing。

“我躺下时几乎要死了from疲劳”——

但仍然完成monumental works。

主要著作

1. Mishneh Torah(《密西那托拉》)

Hebrew,1170-1180

Comprehensive code of Jewish law——

Organize all Talmudic law systematically。

14卷,包含all areas of Jewish life。

Accessible to普通读者——

不需要Talmud的deep知识。

Controversial因为:

Some rabbis认为太radical(simplify tradition)——

But became authoritative。

2. Guide for the Perplexed(《迷途者指南》)

Arabic:Dalālat al-Ḥā’irīn,1190

Hebrew译本:Moreh Nevukhim

Latin译本:Dux Neutrorum / Dux Perplexorum

他的philosophical masterpiece——

今天我们focus on这个。

3. Medical和scientific works

多部医学著作——

包括toxicology、asthma、hygiene。

Commentary on Mishnah(密西那注释)

Various legal responsa(法律答疑)

Guide的目标与受众

为谁写?

Not for:

  • Masses(who accept tradition simply)
  • Philosophers only(who might abandon tradition)

而是for:

“Perplexed”(迷途者)——

那些:

  • 学了philosophy(especially Aristotle)
  • 也deeply committed to Judaism
  • Struggle with apparent contradictions

这些人torn between:

  • Rational philosophy
  • Religious tradition

迈蒙尼德offer guidance——

如何reconcile both。

方法

书是esoteric(隐晦的)——

Deliberately obscure in places。

理由:

Deep truths不应该随便给unprepared readers——

可能mislead或harm他们。

所以:

  • Some passages=straightforward
  • Some passages=allegorical
  • Some passages=contradictory(intentionally)
  • Readers must work to understand

这是protective esotericism——

类似Averroes的"三个层次"思想。

核心主题1:负面神学

如何talk about上帝?

问题

Torah describe上帝with attributes(属性):

  • 上帝是wise
  • 上帝是powerful
  • 上帝is merciful

但:

上帝如果是infinite、perfect、simple——

How can有attributes?

Attributes=limitations——

Because:

  • 说"X is wise"=区分wise from not-wise
  • 暗示X could lack wisdom

Also:

Attributes=composite(复合)——

“Wise being”=being + wisdom(两个elements)

但上帝应该是absolutely simple(绝对单纯)。

Via Negativa(否定之路)

迈蒙尼德的solution:

我们can’t说上帝"是"what——

只能说上帝"不是"what。

Negative theology:

上帝不是:

  • 无知(so in some sense “知”)
  • 无力(so in some sense “能”)
  • 残酷(so in some sense “慈”)

但这不等于:

上帝"有"wisdom、power、mercy as properties。

而是:

上帝超越这些categories——

我们只能通过否定approach。

Example

说"上帝exists":

不是说上帝像我们exist(有existence as property)——

而是否定non-existence。

说"上帝is one":

不是说上帝有unity as property——

而是否定multiplicity。

Every positive statement=really negative:

“The most apt phrase concerning the Creator is to say that He is exalted above every kind of deficiency.”

最接近的描述=

上帝超越一切缺陷(不是说上帝"有"perfections)。

沉默的智慧

Ultimately:

最好的way to speak of上帝=

Silence。

Language inadequate——

Even negative language。

真正的知识=知道我们不能知道上帝’s essence。

这是learned ignorance(有学问的无知)——

Later Nicolas of Cusa会发展similar idea。

核心主题2:预言

预言(prophecy)是什么?

传统view

Prophet=上帝chosen messenger——

上帝speak to prophets——

他们receive direct revelation。

Purely divine gift——

Not related to prophet’s qualities。

迈蒙尼德’s philosophical account

预言=natural process——

Result of:

1. Intellectual perfection

Prophet must have highly developed intellect——

通过philosophical study达到highest knowledge。

2. Imaginative perfection

Strong、pure imagination——

能translate abstract truths into concrete images、symbols。

3. Moral perfection

Virtuous character。

Process:

Active Intellect(主动理智,像Ibn Sina)→

Overflow to prophet’s intellect(理性)→

Then to imagination(想象)→

产生visions、dreams、symbolic experiences。

So:

预言不是arbitrary divine intervention——

而是natural culmination of intellectual和moral development。

摩西的独特性

但Moses=special case——

唯一prophet who:

  • Received prophecy while fully awake(not in dream/vision)
  • Direct、clear knowledge(not through symbols)
  • “Face to face” with上帝

Moses’s prophecy=different in kind——

All other prophets=type of Moses,但less perfect。

Miracles

迈蒙尼德generally naturalistic——

尽量explain miracles自然地:

Many “miracles”=natural events——

Seem miraculous因为timing、context。

例:

Red Sea parting=strong wind(natural)——

但occurs exactly when needed(providential timing)。

Some miracles可能pre-programmed in creation——

Built into nature’s structure from beginning。

核心主题3:创造vs永恒

宇宙有beginning in time吗?

Aristotle

宇宙是eternal——

没有first moment。

Philosophically provable。

Torah

“In the beginning, God created…”

明确说creation有start。

迈蒙尼德的分析

他carefully examine both sides:

Arguments for eternity(Aristotle):

  • 从nothing不能来something
  • Time本身需要pre-existing time(infinite regress)
  • Change需要prior change(infinite regress)

Arguments for creation(Torah):

  • 上帝’s free will(能choose to create)
  • 宇宙的contingency(could not-exist)
  • Particularities in nature(seem designed)

结论:

Philosophically:

Neither eternity nor creation is demonstrable(可证明的)——

Arguments on both sides=不decisive。

所以:

We accept creation on basis of Torah——

Not因为philosophical proof——

而是因为:

  1. Torah’s authority
  2. Creation more compatible with free will、providence
  3. Eternity not proven(so no conflict with reason)

这是subtle position:

不是"faith against reason"——

而是"faith where reason is indecisive"。

核心主题4:恶与天命

如果上帝是all-good和all-powerful——

为什么evil exists?

类型的恶

迈蒙尼德distinguish三种:

1. Natural evils(自然之恶)

疾病、自然灾害、death from natural causes

原因:

Matter的nature——

Matter=imperfect、corruptible。

这不是上帝’s evil intent——

而是material world的necessary limitation。

(类似奥古斯丁:evil as privation)

2. Evils人加于人

战争、oppression、violence

原因:

人的free will misuse——

Lack of wisdom和virtue。

不是上帝cause——

是人的选择。

3. Self-inflicted evils

从bad desires、habits、choices

原因:

Pursue bodily pleasures过度——

Ignore intellect的guidance。

迈蒙尼德认为:

第三种是最common——

多数suffering self-caused!

“Most evils that人experience=自己造成的。”

Providence(天命)

上帝care for individuals吗?

迈蒙尼德:

General providence(普遍天命)for all——

通过自然法则。

Individual providence(个别天命)=**

Proportional to intellectual perfection:

  • 哲学家、先知:strong individual providence
  • Ordinary people:主要general providence
  • Animals:只有species providence,no individual

你的intellectual development=

You越接近上帝的knowledge——

You越在上帝’s providence之下。

这是meritocratic(唯贤)天命观——

Controversial(似乎说智者deserve更好待遇)。

与其他tradition比较

vs Ibn Sina(Avicenna)

Many similarities:

  • Aristotelianism
  • Active Intellect theory
  • Prophecy as emanation
  • Negative theology

Differences:

  • 迈蒙尼德更cautious about metaphysics的可知性
  • 更强调Torah’s authority
  • Less Neoplatonic emanation scheme

vs Averroes

Similar contemporary(slightly younger)——

Both in Andalusia intellectual world。

Differences:

  • Averroes更pure Aristotelian
  • 迈蒙尼德more willing to部分reject Aristotle
  • Averroes的double-truth tendency vs迈蒙尼德’s harmonization

vs Aquinas

Aquinas读迈蒙尼德(Latin translation)——

Influenced by him。

Similarities:

  • Aristotelianism + revealed religion
  • Natural law ethics
  • Trying to reconcile faith和reason

Differences:

  • Different revelations(Torah vs Gospel)
  • 迈蒙尼德more negative theology
  • Aquinas more optimistic about reason’s power

遗产

在犹太传统

Controversial in his lifetime——

Some rabbis condemned his rationalism——

But eventually accepted as greatest authority。

Influenced:

  • All later Jewish philosophy
  • Halakhic(犹太法)tradition
  • Modern Jewish thought

13 Principles of Faith(13信条)——

迈蒙尼德formulated——

成为Jewish orthodoxy的核心。

在Christian world

通过Latin translations——

Influenced Scholastics:

  • Albertus Magnus
  • Thomas Aquinas
  • Meister Eckhart

在现代

Spinoza批评他——

但also influenced by him。

现代Jewish philosophers不断return to迈蒙尼德:

  • Hermann Cohen
  • Leo Strauss
  • Emmanuel Levinas

现代意义

1. 科学与宗教

迈蒙尼德’s approach:

当science(philosophy)和scripture似乎conflict——

Re-interpret scripture allegorically。

这是many modern religious thinkers的strategy:

Genesis creation story=allegorical——

Compatible with Big Bang、evolution。

但also有risk:

过度allegorizing→empty tradition of content?

2. 负面神学的relevance

说我们can’t positively describe上帝——

只能say what上帝isn’t——

This appeals to many today:

Avoids anthropomorphic(人格化)上帝——

But preserves transcendence。

但also challenge:

如果can’t say anything positive about上帝——

还有什么content to belief?

3. 理性的限制

迈蒙尼德recognize:

Reason有limits(如creation question)——

在limits处,faith can step in。

这不是anti-rational——

而是rational humility。

现代parallel:

Science有limits(如consciousness、origins of universe)——

这opens space for other approaches(但也可能for pseudo-science)。

4. Elitism vs accessibility

迈蒙尼德’s esotericism——

Deep truths for qualified few——

在民主时代problematic:

所有人应该equal access to truth?

还是真的有些truths需要preparation to understand?

实践

1. Via negativa练习

Instead of saying what上帝/ultimate reality是——

Try listing what it’s not:

  • Not limited
  • Not temporal
  • Not material
  • Not knowable through concepts

这shifts thinking from positive claims to humble unknowing。

2. Allegorical reading

When sacred texts似乎conflict with knowledge/ethics——

Before rejecting text或knowledge——

Consider:能allegorically interpret吗?

What deeper meaning可能in the story?

3. 追求intellectual perfection

迈蒙尼德说:

Intellectual development=spiritual path——

连接你与上帝。

这不是just academic——

是spiritual practice。

你的learning=devotion。

迷途者(perplexed)——

在reason和faith之间徘徊——

迈蒙尼德说:

不需要choose one——

Follow both to their limits——

You’ll find:

真正的reason leads to上帝——

真正的faith欢迎reason。

Guide不promise消除所有perplexity——

但show:

Perplexity本身can be

路径to deeper understanding。